{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,12]],"date-time":"2025-10-12T04:39:19Z","timestamp":1760243959569,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":23,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"12","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2010,12,13]],"date-time":"2010-12-13T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1292198400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/3.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Loran is a radio-based navigation system originally designed for naval applications. We show that Loran-C\u2019s high-power and high repeatable accuracy are fantastic for security applications. First, we show how to derive a precise location tag\u2014with a sensitivity of about 20 meters\u2014that is difficult to project to an exact location. A device can use our location tag to block or allow certain actions, without knowing its precise location. To ensure that our tag is reproducible we make use of fuzzy extractors, a mechanism originally designed for biometric authentication. We build a fuzzy extractor specifically designed for radio-type errors and give experimental evidence to show its effectiveness. Second, we show that our location tag is difficult to predict from a distance. For example, an observer cannot predict the location tag inside a guarded data center from a few hundreds of meters away. As an application, consider a location-aware disk drive that will only work inside the data center. An attacker who steals the device and is capable of spoofing Loran-C signals, still cannot make the device work since he does not know what location tag to spoof. We provide experimental data supporting our unpredictability claim.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s101211369","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2010,12,14]],"date-time":"2010-12-14T13:26:35Z","timestamp":1292333195000},"page":"11369-11389","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":15,"title":["Reliable Location-Based Services from Radio Navigation Systems"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"10","author":[{"given":"Di","family":"Qiu","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Aeronautics & Astronautics Department, Stanford University, Durand Building, Stanford, CA 94305, USA"}]},{"given":"Dan","family":"Boneh","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Computer Science Department, Stanford University, Gates 475, Stanford, CA 94305, USA"}]},{"given":"Sherman","family":"Lo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Aeronautics & Astronautics Department, Stanford University, Durand Building, Stanford, CA 94305, USA"}]},{"given":"Per","family":"Enge","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Aeronautics & Astronautics Department, Stanford University, Durand Building, Stanford, CA 94305, USA"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2010,12,13]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Available online: http:\/\/www.navcen.uscg.gov\/?pageName=loranHandBook (accessed on 9 December 2010)."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"International Loran Association (ILA) Enhanced Loran (eLoran) Definitions Document. Available online: http:\/\/www.loran.org\/ILAArchive (accessed on 9 December 2010)."},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"Juels, A, and Wattenberg, M A Fuzzy Commitment Scheme. Singapore."},{"key":"ref_4","unstructured":"Juels, A, and Sudan, M (July, January 30). A Fuzzy Vault Scheme. Lausanne, Switzerland."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"523","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-540-24676-3_31","article-title":"Fuzzy Extractors: How to Generate Strong Keys from Biometrics and Other Noisy Data","volume":"Volume 3027","author":"Dodis","year":"2004","journal-title":"Advances in Cryptology\u2014EUROCRYPT 2004"},{"key":"ref_6","unstructured":"Boyen, X Reusable Cryptographic Fuzzy Extractors."},{"key":"ref_7","unstructured":"Lee, D, Best, S, Hanna, D, and Rosario, E A Miniature Loran H-field Antenna for Low-profile Conformal Hybrid Applications. Anaheim, CA, USA."},{"key":"ref_8","unstructured":"Hruska, J (2008). Microsoft Patent Brings Miss Manners into the Digital Age. Arstechnica Hardware News."},{"key":"ref_9","unstructured":"Schneier, B (A Blog Covering Security and Security Technology, 2008). Kill Switches and Remote Control, A Blog Covering Security and Security Technology."},{"key":"ref_10","unstructured":"Qiu, D, Lo, S, Enge, P, Boneh, D, and Peterson, B (,  25\u201328). Geoencryption Using Loran. San Diego, CA, USA."},{"key":"ref_11","first-page":"2","article-title":"The TESLA Broadcast Authentication Protocol","volume":"5","author":"Perrig","year":"2002","journal-title":"CryptoBytes"},{"key":"ref_12","unstructured":"Sullivan, B (2007). The Biggest Data Disaster Ever. MSNBC News."},{"key":"ref_13","unstructured":"Scott, L, and Denning, D (,  22\u201324). A Location Based Encryption Technique and Some of Its Applications. Anaheim, CA, USA."},{"key":"ref_14","unstructured":"Chang, E, and Li, Q Small Secure Sketch for Point-set Difference. Cryptology ePrint Archive, Report 2005\/145 (2005). Available online: http:\/\/citeseerx.ist.psu.edu\/viewdoc\/download?doi=10.1.1.59.2021&rep=rep1&type=pdf (accessed on 7 December 2010)."},{"key":"ref_15","unstructured":"Swaszek, P, Johnson, G, Hartnett, R, and Lo, S (,  14\u201317). An Investigation into the Temporal Correlation at the ASF Monitor Sites. Orlando, FL, USA."},{"key":"ref_16","unstructured":"Lo, S, Wenzel, R, Johnson, G, and Enge, P (,  28\u201330). Assessment of the Methodology for Bounding Loran Temporal ASF for Aviation. San Diego, CA, USA."},{"key":"ref_17","unstructured":"Qiu, D, Lo, S, and Enge, P (,  6\u20138). A Measure of Loran Location Information. Monterey, CA, USA."},{"key":"ref_18","unstructured":"Peterson, B, Hawes, A, and Shmihluk, K (2006). Loran Data Channel Communications Using 9th Pulse Modulation, United States Loran Support Unit."},{"key":"ref_19","unstructured":"Misra, P, and Enge, P (2001). Global Positioning System: Signals, Measurements, and Performance, Ganga-Jamuna Press."},{"key":"ref_20","unstructured":"Scott, L (,  8\u20139). Anti-Spoofing & Authenticated Signal Architectures for Civil Navigation Systems. Portland, OR, USA."},{"key":"ref_21","unstructured":"Gibbons, G Galileo: Redirecting a Stuttering Program. Available online: http:\/\/www.insidegnss.com\/node\/365 (accessed on 9 December 2010)."},{"key":"ref_22","unstructured":"Hein, G, Kneissl, F, Rodriguez, J, and Wallner, S Authenticating GNSS Proofs against Spoofs Part 2. Available online: http:\/\/www.insidegnss.com\/node\/171 (accessed on 9 December 2010)."},{"key":"ref_23","unstructured":"Lo, S, Peterson, B, and Enge, P Assessing the Security of a Navigation System: A Case Study Using Enhanced Loran. Naples, Italy."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/10\/12\/11369\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T22:04:05Z","timestamp":1760220245000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/10\/12\/11369"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2010,12,13]]},"references-count":23,"journal-issue":{"issue":"12","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2010,12]]}},"alternative-id":["s101211369"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s101211369","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"1424-8220"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2010,12,13]]}}}