{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,4]],"date-time":"2025-11-04T23:08:44Z","timestamp":1762297724326,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":33,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"5","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2011,5,4]],"date-time":"2011-05-04T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1304467200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/3.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Fungal contamination and the presence of related toxins is a widespread problem. Mycotoxin contamination has prompted many countries to establish appropriate tolerance levels. For instance, with the Commission Regulation (EC) N. 1881\/2006, the European Commission fixed the limits for the main mycotoxins (and other contaminants) in food. Although valid analytical methods are being developed for regulatory purposes, a need exists for alternative screening methods that can detect mould and mycotoxin contamination of cereal grains with high sample throughput. In this study, a commercial electronic nose (EN) equipped with metal-oxide-semiconductor (MOS) sensors was used in combination with a trap and the thermal desorption technique, with the adoption of Tenax TA as an adsorbent material to discriminate between durum wheat whole-grain samples naturally contaminated with deoxynivalenol (DON) and non-contaminated samples. Each wheat sample was analysed with the EN at four different desorption temperatures (i.e., 180 \u00b0C, 200 \u00b0C, 220 \u00b0C, and 240 \u00b0C) and without a desorption pre-treatment. A 20-sample and a 122-sample dataset were processed by means of principal component analysis (PCA) and classified via classification and regression trees (CART). Results, validated with two different methods, showed that it was possible to classify wheat samples into three clusters based on the DON content proposed by the European legislation: (a) non-contaminated; (b) contaminated below the limit (DON  1,750 \u03bcg\/kg), with a classification error rate in prediction of 0% (for the 20-sample dataset) and 3.28% (for the 122-sample dataset).<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s110504899","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2011,5,4]],"date-time":"2011-05-04T09:03:57Z","timestamp":1304499837000},"page":"4899-4916","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":54,"title":["Use of the Electronic Nose as a Screening Tool for the Recognition of Durum Wheat Naturally Contaminated by Deoxynivalenol: A Preliminary Approach"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"11","author":[{"given":"Anna","family":"Campagnoli","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Universit\u00e0 Telematica San Raffaele Roma, via di Val Cannuta, 247, 00166, Roma, Italy"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2682-8685","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Federica","family":"Cheli","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Dipartimento di Scienze e Tecnologie Veterinarie per la Sicurezza Alimentare, Facolt\u00e0 di Medicina Veterinaria, Universit\u00e0 degli Studi di Milano, via Celoria, 10, 20133 Milano, Italy"}]},{"given":"Carlo","family":"Polidori","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Universit\u00e0 Telematica San Raffaele Roma, via di Val Cannuta, 247, 00166, Roma, Italy"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8800-1777","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mauro","family":"Zaninelli","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Universit\u00e0 Telematica San Raffaele Roma, via di Val Cannuta, 247, 00166, Roma, Italy"}]},{"given":"Oreste","family":"Zecca","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Dipartimento di Prevenzione Veterinaria, Azienda Sanitaria Locale di Sondrio, via Stelvio, 35, 23100, Sondrio, Italy"}]},{"given":"Giovanni","family":"Savoini","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Dipartimento di Scienze e Tecnologie Veterinarie per la Sicurezza Alimentare, Facolt\u00e0 di Medicina Veterinaria, Universit\u00e0 degli Studi di Milano, via Celoria, 10, 20133 Milano, Italy"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0337-9426","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Luciano","family":"Pinotti","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Dipartimento di Scienze e Tecnologie Veterinarie per la Sicurezza Alimentare, Facolt\u00e0 di Medicina Veterinaria, Universit\u00e0 degli Studi di Milano, via Celoria, 10, 20133 Milano, Italy"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8401-3615","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Vittorio","family":"Dell\u2019Orto","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Dipartimento di Scienze e Tecnologie Veterinarie per la Sicurezza Alimentare, Facolt\u00e0 di Medicina Veterinaria, Universit\u00e0 degli Studi di Milano, via Celoria, 10, 20133 Milano, Italy"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2011,5,4]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"81","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijfoodmicro.2007.12.001","article-title":"Distribution of fumonisins and aflatoxins in corn fractions during industrial corn flakes processing","volume":"123","author":"Castells","year":"2008","journal-title":"Int. J. Food Microbiol"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"437","DOI":"10.3920\/WMJ2008.1059","article-title":"The fate of deoxynivalenol and fumonisins in wheat and maize during commercial breakfast cereal production","volume":"1","author":"Scudamore","year":"2008","journal-title":"World Mycotoxin J"},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"Codex Alimentarius Codex Standard for Durum Wheat Semolina and Durum Wheat Flour 178\u20131991, FAO\/WHO. (Rev. 1-1995)."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115","DOI":"10.1080\/01652176.1999.9695005","article-title":"Mycotoxins: Their implications for human and animal health","volume":"21","year":"1999","journal-title":"Vet. Quart"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101","DOI":"10.1016\/S0300-483X(01)00471-1","article-title":"Toxicity; metabolism; and impact of mycotoxins on human and animals","volume":"167","author":"Hussein","year":"2001","journal-title":"Toxicology"},{"key":"ref_6","unstructured":"Diaz, TD (2005). The Mycotoxin Blue Book, Nottingham University Press. [2nd ed]."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.toxlet.2004.04.020","article-title":"Workshop on trichothecenes with a focus on DON: Summary report","volume":"153","author":"Larsen","year":"2004","journal-title":"Toxicol. Lett"},{"key":"ref_8","unstructured":"IARC (1993). Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risk to Humans Some Naturally Occurring Substances: Food Items and Constituents Heterocyclic Aromatic Amines and Mycotoxins, International Agency for Research on Cancer."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijfoodmicro.2007.07.019","article-title":"Some major mycotoxins and their mycotoxicoses\u2014An overview","volume":"119","author":"Richard","year":"2007","journal-title":"Int. J. Food Microbiol"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1080\/009841096161447","article-title":"Toxicology of deoxynivalenol (vomitoxin)","volume":"48","author":"Rotter","year":"1996","journal-title":"J. Toxicol. Environ. Health"},{"key":"ref_11","unstructured":"(2006). Commission Regulation (EC) No 1881\/2006 of 19 December 2006 setting maximum levels for certain contaminants in foodstuffs. (20\/12\/2006). Off. J. Eur. Union, L364, 5\u201324."},{"key":"ref_12","first-page":"447","article-title":"Mycotoxin analysis, mycotoxins-producing fungi assays and mycotoxins toxicity bioassay in food mycotoxins monitoring and surveillance. Review","volume":"4","author":"Cheli","year":"2008","journal-title":"Ital. J. Food Sci"},{"key":"ref_13","first-page":"159","article-title":"Potential application of electronic noses in cereals","volume":"46","author":"Feast","year":"2001","journal-title":"Cereal Food World"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"825","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1365-2672.2000.01185.x","article-title":"Detection and differentiation between mycotoxigenic and non-mycotoxigenic strains of two Fusarium spp. using volatile production profiles and hydrolytic enzymes","volume":"89","author":"Keshri","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Appl. Microbiol"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"319","DOI":"10.1016\/S0022-474X(99)00057-0","article-title":"Volatiles as an indicator of fungal activity and differentiation between species and the potential use of electronic nose technology for early detection of grain spoilage","volume":"36","author":"Magan","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Stored Prod"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"250","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2004.09.046","article-title":"Detection of toxigenic strains of Fusarium verticilloides in maize by electronic olfactory system","volume":"108","author":"Falasconi","year":"2005","journal-title":"Sens. Actuat. B"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"425","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2005.12.047","article-title":"Detection of fungal contamination of cereal grain samples by an electronic nose","volume":"119","author":"Paolesse","year":"2006","journal-title":"Sens. Actuat. B"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"433","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2006.04.045","article-title":"Response evaluation of an E-nose towards contaminated wheat by Fusarium poae fungi","volume":"118","author":"Presicce","year":"2006","journal-title":"Sens. Actuat. B"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"117","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2007.12.019","article-title":"Fungal volatile fingerprints: Discrimantion between dermatophyte species and strains by means o fan electronic nose","volume":"131","author":"Sahgal","year":"2008","journal-title":"Sens. Actuat. B"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7079","DOI":"10.1021\/jf030228g","article-title":"Determination of geosmin, 2-methylsoborneol, and a musty-earthy odor in wheat grain by SPME-GC-MS, profiling volatiles, and sensory analysis","volume":"51","author":"Jelen","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Agr. Food Chem"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"203","DOI":"10.1016\/S0168-1605(01)00685-7","article-title":"Detection and quantification of ochratoxin and deoxinivalenol in barley grain by GC-MS and electronic nose","volume":"72","author":"Olsson","year":"2002","journal-title":"Int. J. Food Microbiol"},{"key":"ref_22","unstructured":"(2006). Commission Regulation (EC) No 401\/2006 of 23 February 2006 laying down the methods of sampling and analysis for the official control of the levels of mycotoxins in foodstuffs. (9\/3\/2006). Off. J. Eur. Union, L70, 12\u201334."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"379","DOI":"10.1016\/S0925-4005(00)00493-7","article-title":"Improving electronic noses using a trap and thermal desorption unit","volume":"69","author":"Muenchmeyer","year":"2000","journal-title":"Sens. Actuat. B"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"341","DOI":"10.1613\/jair.953","article-title":"SMOTE: Synthetic minority over-sampling technique","volume":"16","author":"Chawla","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Artif. Intell. Res"},{"key":"ref_25","unstructured":"Breiman, L, Friedman, JH, Olshen, RA, and Stone, CJ (1984). Classification and Regression Trees, Wadsworth International Group."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"153","DOI":"10.1109\/34.574797","article-title":"Feature selection: Evaluation, application, and small sample performance","volume":"19","author":"Jain","year":"1997","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Patt. Anal. Mach. Int"},{"key":"ref_27","unstructured":"Todeschini, R (1998). Introduzione Alla Chemiometria, EdiSES. [1st ed]."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Izenman, AJ (2008). Modern Multivariate Statistical Techniques, Regression, Classification and Manifold Learning, Springer. [1st ed].","DOI":"10.1007\/978-0-387-78189-1"},{"key":"ref_29","unstructured":"Seung-Bum, H, Yeon-Seok, O, and Joong-Hwan, B (2005, January 23\u201326). Robust Multiple Features Selection Using the CART for Shot Change Detection. HeFei, China."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"733","DOI":"10.1007\/s00217-010-1299-2","article-title":"Multivariate discrimination of wines with respect to their grape varieties and vintages","volume":"231","author":"Charlton","year":"2010","journal-title":"Eur. Food Res. Technol"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2104","DOI":"10.1021\/jf00035a053","article-title":"Off-odorous compounds produced by molds on oatmeal agar: Identification and relation to other growth characteristics","volume":"41","author":"Borjesson","year":"1993","journal-title":"J. Food Chem"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"van Amerongen, A, Barug, D, and Lauwaars, M (2007). Rapid Methods for Food and Feed Quality Determination, Wageningen Academic Publishers.","DOI":"10.3920\/978-90-8686-606-9"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"317","DOI":"10.1081\/TXR-200027859","article-title":"Emerging technologies for mycotoxin detection","volume":"23","author":"Maragos","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Toxicol.-Toxin Rev"}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/11\/5\/4899\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T21:56:00Z","timestamp":1760219760000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/11\/5\/4899"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2011,5,4]]},"references-count":33,"journal-issue":{"issue":"5","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2011,5]]}},"alternative-id":["s110504899"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s110504899","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"1424-8220"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2011,5,4]]}}}