{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,19]],"date-time":"2026-03-19T14:45:13Z","timestamp":1773931513828,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":116,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"6","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2011,5,26]],"date-time":"2011-05-26T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1306368000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/3.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["www.mdpi.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Wireless sensor network (WSN) technologies are considered one of the key research areas in computer science and the healthcare application industries for improving the quality of life. The purpose of this paper is to provide a snapshot of current developments and future direction of research on wearable and implantable body area network systems for continuous monitoring of patients. This paper explains the important role of body sensor networks in medicine to minimize the need for caregivers and help the chronically ill and elderly people live an independent life, besides providing people with quality care. The paper provides several examples of state of the art technology together with the design considerations like unobtrusiveness, scalability, energy efficiency, security and also provides a comprehensive analysis of the various benefits and drawbacks of these systems. Although offering significant benefits, the field of wearable and implantable body sensor networks still faces major challenges and open research problems which are investigated and covered, along with some proposed solutions, in this paper.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s110605561","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2011,5,26]],"date-time":"2011-05-26T10:58:16Z","timestamp":1306407496000},"page":"5561-5595","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":454,"title":["Wearable and Implantable Wireless Sensor Network Solutions for Healthcare Monitoring"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"11","author":[{"given":"Ashraf","family":"Darwish","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Science, Helwan University, Cairo, Egypt"}]},{"given":"Aboul Ella","family":"Hassanien","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Computers and Information, Cairo University, Cairo, Egypt"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2011,5,26]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"277","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pmcj.2009.04.001","article-title":"Ambient intelligence: Technologies, applications, and opportunities","volume":"5","author":"Cook","year":"2009","journal-title":"Pervasive Mob. Comput"},{"key":"ref_2","first-page":"1","article-title":"Global aging: The challenge of success","volume":"60","author":"Kinsella","year":"2005","journal-title":"Pop. Bull"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10","DOI":"10.1109\/MPRV.2002.993139","article-title":"Using pervasive computing to deliver elder care","volume":"1","author":"Stanford","year":"2002","journal-title":"IEEE Pervasive Comput"},{"key":"ref_4","unstructured":"Mcfadden, T, and Indulska, J (, January December). Context-aware environments for independent living. Brisbane, Australia."},{"key":"ref_5","unstructured":"Leonov, V, Fiorini, P, Sedky, S, Torfs, T, and van Hoof, C (2005, January 5\u20139). Thermoelectric MEMS generators as a power supply for a body area network. Seoul, Korea."},{"key":"ref_6","unstructured":"Intanagonwiwat, C, Govindan, R, and Estrin, D (, January August). Directed diffusion: A scalable and robust communication paradigm for sensor networks. Boston, MA, USA."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"938","DOI":"10.1109\/TBME.2005.845369","article-title":"A 1.48-mw low-phase-noise analog frequency modulator for wireless biotelemetry","volume":"52","author":"Mohseni","year":"2005","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"155","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sna.2005.03.040","article-title":"An autonomous bladder pressure monitoring system","volume":"123\u2013124","author":"Coosemans","year":"2005","journal-title":"Sens Actuat A"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"589","DOI":"10.1109\/10.141197","article-title":"Closed-loop class E transcutaneous power and data link for microimplants","volume":"39","author":"Troyk","year":"1992","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"263","DOI":"10.1109\/TNSRE.2005.853625","article-title":"Wireless multichannel biopotential recording using an integrated FM telemetry circuit","volume":"13","author":"Mohseni","year":"2005","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Neural Syst. Rehabil. Eng"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1950","DOI":"10.1109\/TBME.2005.856247","article-title":"Micropower circuits for bidirectional wireless telemetry in neural recording applications","volume":"52","author":"Neihart","year":"2005","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1285","DOI":"10.1109\/TBME.2005.847527","article-title":"Communication scheduling to minimize thermal effects of implanted biosensor networks in homogeneous tissue","volume":"52","author":"Tang","year":"2005","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng"},{"key":"ref_13","first-page":"2","article-title":"A wireless body area network of intelligent motion sensors for computer assisted physical rehabilitation","volume":"1","author":"Jovanov","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Neuroeng. Rehabil"},{"key":"ref_14","first-page":"307","article-title":"System architecture of a wireless body area sensor network for ubiquitous health monitoring","volume":"1","author":"Otto","year":"2006","journal-title":"JMM"},{"key":"ref_15","unstructured":"Braem, B, Latre, B, Moerman, I, Blondia, C, and Demeester, P (, January July). The wireless autonomous spanning tree protocol for multihop wireless body area networks. San Jose, CA, USA."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Latre, B, Braem, B, Moerman, I, Blondia, C, Reusens, E, Joseph, W, and Demeester, P (2007, January 6\u201310). A low-delay protocol for multihop wireless body area networks. Philadelphia, PA, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/MOBIQ.2007.4451060"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1109\/TITB.2004.837888","article-title":"AMON: A wearable multi parameters medical monitoring and alert system","volume":"8","author":"Anliker","year":"2004","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Inf. Technol. Biomed"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"824","DOI":"10.1016\/j.adhoc.2010.03.002","article-title":"DTN routing in body sensor networks with dynamic postural partitioning","volume":"8","author":"Quwaider","year":"2010","journal-title":"Ad Hoc Netw"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"185","DOI":"10.4156\/jdcta.vol3.issue3.23","article-title":"Medical applications of wireless body area networks","volume":"3","author":"Khan","year":"2009","journal-title":"JDCTA"},{"key":"ref_20","unstructured":"Mark, AH, Harry, CP, Adam, TB, Kyle, R, Benton, HC, James, HA, and John, L (2009). Body Area Sensor Networks: Challenges and Opportunities, IEEE Computer Society."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Basten, T, Geilen, M, and De Groot, H (2003). Ambient Intelligence: Impact on Embedded System Design, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/b105278"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Weber, W, Rabaey, JM, and Aarts, E (2005). Ambient Intelligence, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/b138670"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"41","DOI":"10.1109\/MC.2004.93","article-title":"Overview of sensor networks","volume":"37","author":"Culler","year":"2005","journal-title":"IEEE Comput"},{"key":"ref_24","unstructured":"Zhao, F, and Guibas, L (2004). Wireless Sensor Networks: An Information Processing Approach, Morgan Kaufmann."},{"key":"ref_25","first-page":"11","article-title":"The design space of wireless sensor networks","volume":"6","author":"Romer","year":"2004","journal-title":"IEEE Wirel. Commun"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1002","DOI":"10.1109\/JPROC.2003.814620","article-title":"Real-time communication and coordination in embedded sensor networks","volume":"91","author":"Stankovic","year":"2003","journal-title":"Proc. IEEE"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"393","DOI":"10.1016\/S1389-1286(01)00302-4","article-title":"Wireless sensor networks: A survey","volume":"38","author":"Akyildiz","year":"2002","journal-title":"Comput. Netw"},{"key":"ref_28","unstructured":"Intanagonwiwat, C, Govindan, R, and Estrin, D (, January August). Directed diffusion: A scalable and robust communication paradigm for sensor networks. Boston, MA, USA."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"34","DOI":"10.1145\/990680.990704","article-title":"Habitat monitoring with sensor networks","volume":"6","author":"Szewczyk","year":"2004","journal-title":"Commun. ACM"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"38","DOI":"10.1109\/MPRV.2004.1269130","article-title":"Vineyard computing: Sensor networks in agricultural production","volume":"1","author":"Burrell","year":"2004","journal-title":"IEEE Pervasive Comput"},{"key":"ref_31","unstructured":"Jovanov, E, Price, J, Raskovic, D, Kavi, K, Martin, T, and Adhami, R (, January November). Wireless personal area networks in telemedical environment. Arlington, VA, USA."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"49","DOI":"10.1109\/MEMB.2003.1213626","article-title":"Stress monitoring using a distributed wireless intelligent sensor system","volume":"22","author":"Jovanov","year":"2003","journal-title":"IEEE Eng. Med. Biol. Mag"},{"key":"ref_33","first-page":"2","article-title":"A wireless body area network of intelligent motion sensors for computer assisted physical rehabilitation","volume":"1","author":"Jovanov","year":"2005","journal-title":"JNER"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"393","DOI":"10.1016\/S1389-1286(01)00302-4","article-title":"Wireless sensor networks: A survey","volume":"38","author":"Akyildiz","year":"2002","journal-title":"Comput. Netw"},{"key":"ref_35","unstructured":"Kahn, JM, Katz, RH, and Pister, KSJ (, January August). Next century challenges: Mobile networking for smart dust. Washington, DC, USA."},{"key":"ref_36","unstructured":"Noury, N, Herve, T, Rialle, V, Virone, G, Mercier, E, Morey, G, Moro, A, and Porcheron, T (2000, January 12\u201314). Monitoring behavior in home using a smart fall sensor. Lyon, France."},{"key":"ref_37","unstructured":"Benhaddou, D, Balakrishnan, M, and Yuan, X (, January April). Remote healthcare monitoring system architecture using sensor networks. Kansas City, MO, USA."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"62","DOI":"10.1109\/54.914626","article-title":"Dynamic power management in wireless sensor networks","volume":"18","author":"Sinha","year":"2001","journal-title":"IEEE Des. Test Comput"},{"key":"ref_39","unstructured":"Noury, N, Herve, T, Rialle, V, Virone, G, Mercier, E, Morey, G, Moro, A, and Porcheron, T (2000, January 12\u201314). Monitoring behavior in home using a smart fall sensor. Lyon, France."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"609","DOI":"10.1147\/sj.353.0609","article-title":"Personal Area networks: Near-field intrabody communication","volume":"35","author":"Zimmerman","year":"1996","journal-title":"IBM Syst. J"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"151","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jnca.2010.08.005","article-title":"Biofeedback data visualization for body sensor networks","volume":"34","author":"Joel","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Netw. Comput. Appl"},{"key":"ref_42","unstructured":"Quwaider, M, and Biswas, S (, January March). Body posture identification using hidden Markov model with a wearable sensor network. Tempe, AZ, USA."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"490","DOI":"10.1249\/01.mss.0000185571.49104.82","article-title":"The technology of accelerometry-based activity monitors: Current and future","volume":"37","author":"Chen","year":"2005","journal-title":"Med. Sci. Sports Exerc"},{"key":"ref_44","unstructured":"Quwaider, M, and Biswas, S (, January March). Body posture identification using hidden Markov model with a wearable sensor network. Tempe, AZ, USA."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"191","DOI":"10.24138\/jcomss.v4i3.219","article-title":"Physical context detection using multimodal sensing using wearable wireless networks","volume":"4","author":"Quwaider","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Commun. Softw. Syst"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2521","DOI":"10.1016\/j.comcom.2006.02.011","article-title":"Wireless sensor networks for personal health monitoring: Issues and an implementation","volume":"29","author":"Aleksandar","year":"2006","journal-title":"Comput. Commun"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"537","DOI":"10.1016\/j.adhoc.2008.06.003","article-title":"Energy conservation in wireless sensor networks: A Survey","volume":"7","author":"Anastasi","year":"2009","journal-title":"Ad Hoc Netw"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sna.2009.11.007","article-title":"A magnetoelectric energy harvester and management circuit for wireless sensor network","volume":"157","author":"Li","year":"2010","journal-title":"Sens. Actuat. A"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"23","DOI":"10.1109\/MEMB.2003.1213623","article-title":"Predicting the potential of wearable technology","volume":"22","author":"Binkley","year":"2003","journal-title":"IEEE Eng. Med. Biol. Mag"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lymberis, A, and Gatzoulis, L (2006). Wearable Health Systems: From Smart Technologies to Real Applications, IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society.","DOI":"10.1109\/IEMBS.2006.260948"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pacelli, M, Loriga, G, Taccini, N, and Paradiso, R (2006). Sensing Fabrics Formonitoring Physiological and Biomechanical Variables: E-Textile Solutions, IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society.","DOI":"10.1109\/ISSMDBS.2006.360082"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"337","DOI":"10.1109\/TITB.2005.854512","article-title":"A wearable health care system based on knitted integrated sensors","volume":"9","author":"Paradiso","year":"2005","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Inf. Technol. B"},{"key":"ref_53","unstructured":"Lymberis, A, and de Rossi, D (2004). Wearable system for vital signs monitoring. Studies in Health Technology and Informatics\u2014State of the Art and Future Challenges, IOS Press."},{"key":"ref_54","unstructured":"Lin, G, and Tang, W (2000). Wearable sensor patches for physiological monitoring. NASA Tech Briefs: Engineering Solutions for Design and Manufacturing, ABP International."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"652","DOI":"10.1021\/cr0681187","article-title":"Wireless sensor networks and chemo-biosensing","volume":"108","author":"Diamond","year":"2008","journal-title":"Chem. Rev"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"231","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2009.02.032","article-title":"Bio-sensing textile based patch with integrated optical detection system for sweat monitoring","volume":"129","author":"Morris","year":"2009","journal-title":"Sens. Actuat. B"},{"key":"ref_57","first-page":"21","article-title":"Wireless sensor network for wearable physiological monitoring","volume":"3","author":"Pandian","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Netw"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"466","DOI":"10.1016\/j.medengphy.2007.05.014","article-title":"Smart vest: Wearable multi-parameter remote physiological monitoring system","volume":"30","author":"Pandian","year":"2007","journal-title":"Med. Eng. Phys"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"41","DOI":"10.1258\/135763305775124623","article-title":"The Life Shirt system for wireless patient monitoring in the operating room","volume":"11","author":"Halin","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Telemed. Telecare"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"382","DOI":"10.1109\/TITB.2005.854509","article-title":"A multiparameter wearable physiologic monitoring system for space and terrestrial applications","volume":"9","author":"Mundt","year":"2005","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Inf. Technol. Biomed"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"152","DOI":"10.1007\/BF01418152","article-title":"The wearable motherboard TM: The first generation of adaptive and responsive textile structures (ARTS) for medical applications","volume":"4","author":"Gopalsamy","year":"2005","journal-title":"Virtual Reality"},{"key":"ref_62","unstructured":"Webster, JG (1992). Medical Instrumentation: Application and Design, Houghton Mifflin. [2nd ed]."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1313","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mejo.2008.08.015","article-title":"Ultra-low-power biopotential interfaces and their applications in wearable and implantable systems","volume":"40","author":"Yazicioglu","year":"2009","journal-title":"Microelectron. J"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"937","DOI":"10.1109\/10.324525","article-title":"A telemetryinstrumentation system for monitoring multiple subcutaneously implanted glucose sensors","volume":"41","author":"Shults","year":"1994","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng"},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1553","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bios.2009.12.001","article-title":"Emerging synergy between nanotechnology and implantable biosensors: A review","volume":"25","author":"Santhisagar","year":"2010","journal-title":"Biosens. Bioelectron"},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"938","DOI":"10.1109\/TBME.2005.845369","article-title":"A 1.48-mw low-phase-noise analog frequency modulator for wireless biotelemetry","volume":"52","author":"Mohseni","year":"2005","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng"},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1285","DOI":"10.1109\/TBME.2005.847527","article-title":"Communication scheduling to minimize thermal effects of implanted biosensor networks in homogeneous tissue","volume":"52","author":"Tang","year":"2005","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng"},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19","DOI":"10.1186\/1743-0003-2-6","article-title":"A wireless body area network of intelligent motion sensors for computer assisted physical rehabilitation","volume":"2","author":"Jovanov","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Neuroeng. Rehabil"},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Schwiebert, L, Gupta, SKS, and Weinmann, J (2001, January 16\u201321). Research challenges in wireless networks of biomedical sensors. Rome, Italy.","DOI":"10.1145\/381677.381692"},{"key":"ref_70","unstructured":"Aziz, O, Lo, B, King, R, Darzi, A, and Yang, GZ Pervasive body sensor network: An approach to monitoring the postoperative surgical patient. Cambridge, MA, USA."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1639","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mejo.2006.04.021","article-title":"Wireless sensor networks: Enabling technology for ambient intelligence","volume":"37","author":"Benini","year":"2006","journal-title":"Microelectron. J"},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"188","DOI":"10.1109\/JCN.2000.6596708","article-title":"Emerging challenges: Mobile networking for smart dust","volume":"2","author":"Kahn","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Commun. Netw"},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2688","DOI":"10.1016\/j.comnet.2010.05.003","article-title":"Wireless sensor networks for healthcare: A survey","volume":"54","author":"Alemdar","year":"2010","journal-title":"Comput. Netw"},{"key":"ref_74","unstructured":"Purwar, A, Jeong, DU, and Chung, WY (2007, January 21\u201323). Activity monitoring from realtime triaxial accelerometer data using sensor network. Hong Kong."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Baker, C, Armijo, K, Belka, S, Benhabib, M, Bhargava, V, Burkhart, N, Der Minassians, A, Dervisoglu, G, Gutnik, L, Haick, M, Ho, C, Koplow, M, Mangold, J, Robinson, S, Rosa, M, Schwartz, M, Sims, C, Stoffregen, H, Waterbury, A, Leland, E, Pering, T, and Wright, P (2007, January 21\u201323). Wireless sensor networks for home health care. Niagara Falls, Canada.","DOI":"10.1109\/AINAW.2007.376"},{"key":"ref_76","first-page":"2","article-title":"Wearable feedback systems for rehabilitation","volume":"1","author":"Sung","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Neuro Eng. Rehabil"},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"178","DOI":"10.1109\/JSSC.2009.2034440","article-title":"A 5.2 mw self-configured wearable body sensor network controller and a 12 w wirelessly powered sensor for a continuous health monitoring system","volume":"45","author":"Yoo","year":"2010","journal-title":"IEEE J. Solid-State Circ"},{"key":"ref_78","unstructured":"Barth, AT, Hanson, MA, Powell, HC, and Lach, J (, January June). Tempo 3.1: A body area sensor network platform for continuous movement assessment. Berkeley, CA, USA."},{"key":"ref_79","unstructured":"Gietzelt, M, Wolf, KH, Marschollek, M, and Haux, R (, January January). Automatic self-calibration of body worn triaxial-accelerometers for application in healthcare. Tampere, Finland."},{"key":"ref_80","unstructured":"Gao, T, Greenspan, D, Welsh, M, Juang, RR, and Alm, A (2005, January 1\u20134). Vital signs monitoring and patient tracking over a wireless network. Shanghai, China."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"380","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sna.2007.11.005","article-title":"Fabrication, modelling and characterization of MEMS piezoelectric vibration harvesters","volume":"145\u2013146","author":"Renaud","year":"2008","journal-title":"Sens Actuat A"},{"key":"ref_82","unstructured":"Lauterbach, C, Strasser, M, Jung, S, and Weber, W (, January May). Smart clothes self-powered by body heat. Frankfurt, Germany."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Marinkovic, S, and Popovici, E (2009, January 11\u201316). Network coding for efficient error recovery in wireless sensor networks for medical applications. Sliema, Malta.","DOI":"10.1109\/EMERGING.2009.22"},{"key":"ref_84","unstructured":"Schoellhammer, T, Osterweil, E, Greenstein, B, Wimbrow, M, and Estrin, D (2004, January 16\u201318). Lightweight temporal compression of microclimate datasets. Tampa, FL, USA."},{"key":"ref_85","unstructured":"Sadler, CM, and Martonosi, M (November, January 31). Data compression algorithms for energy-constrained devices in delay tolerant networks. Boulder, CO, USA."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"969","DOI":"10.1093\/comjnl\/bxp035","article-title":"An efficient lossless compression algorithm for tiny nodes of monitoring wireless sensor networks","volume":"52","author":"Marcelloni","year":"2009","journal-title":"Comput. J"},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1924","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ins.2010.01.027","article-title":"Enabling energy-efficient and lossy-aware data compression in wireless sensor networks by multi-objective evolutionary optimization","volume":"180","author":"Marcelloni","year":"2010","journal-title":"Inf. Sci"},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4818","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ins.2010.08.021","article-title":"A memetic algorithm for extending wireless sensor network lifetime","volume":"180","author":"Ting","year":"2010","journal-title":"Inf. Sci"},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115","DOI":"10.1109\/MCOM.2006.1632658","article-title":"MAC protocols for wireless sensor networks: A survey","volume":"44","author":"Demirkol","year":"2006","journal-title":"IEEE Commun. Mag"},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Durmus, Y, Ozgovde, A, and Ersoy, C (2009, January 11\u201315). Event based queueing for fairness and on-time delivery in video surveillance sensor networks. Aachen, Germany.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-642-01399-7_4"},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"63","DOI":"10.1631\/jzus.C0910204","article-title":"Congestion avoidance, detection and alleviation in wireless sensor networks","volume":"11","author":"Fang","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Zhejiang Univ. Sci. C"},{"key":"ref_92","unstructured":"Tang, Q, Tummala, N, Gupta, SKS, and Schwiebert, L (, January June). TARA: Thermal aware routing algorithm for implanted sensor networks. Marina del Ray, CA, USA."},{"key":"ref_93","unstructured":"Pereira, P, Grilo, A, Rocha, F, Nunes, M, Casaca, A, Chaudet, C, Almstrm, P, and Johansson, M (2007, January 6\u20137). End-to-end reliability in wireless sensor networks: Survey and research challenges. Lisbon, Portugal."},{"key":"ref_94","unstructured":"Misic, J (, January March). Enforcing patient privacy in healthcare WSNs using ECC implemented on 802.15.4 beacon enabled clusters. Hong Kong."},{"key":"ref_95","unstructured":"Zhang, GH, Poon, CCY, Li, Y, and Zhang, YT (, January September). A biometric method to secure telemedicine systems. Minneapolis, MN, USA."},{"key":"ref_96","unstructured":"Bao, S, Zhang, Y, and Shen, L (2005, January 1\u20134). Physiological signal based entity authentication for body area sensor networks and mobile healthcare systems. Shanghai, China."},{"key":"ref_97","unstructured":"Ikonen, V, and Kaasinen, E (, January November). Ethical assessment in the design of ambient assisted living. Schloss Dagstuhl, Germany."},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Srinivasan, V, Stankovic, J, and Whitehouse, K (2008, January 21\u201324). Protecting your daily in home activity information from a wireless snooping attack. Seoul, Korea.","DOI":"10.1145\/1409635.1409663"},{"key":"ref_99","unstructured":"Casas, R, Blasco, MR, Robinet, A, Delgado, AR, Yarza, AR, Mcginn, J, Picking, R, and Grout, V (, January July). User modelling in ambient intelligence for elderly and disabled people. Linz, Austria."},{"key":"ref_100","unstructured":"Jasemian, Y (February, January 30). Elderly comfort and compliance to modern telemedicine system at home. Tampere, Finland."},{"key":"ref_101","unstructured":"Atallah, L, Lo, B, Yang, GZ, and Siegemund, F (February, January 30). Wirelessly accessible sensor populations (WASP) for elderly care monitoring. Tampere, Finland."},{"key":"ref_102","unstructured":"Hori, T, Nishida, Y, Suehiro, T, and Hirai, S (November, January 30). SELF-Network: Design and implementation of network for distributed embedded sensors. Takamatsu, Japan."},{"key":"ref_103","unstructured":"Mori, Y, Yamauchi, M, and Kaneko, K (, January November). Design and implementation of the Vital Sign Box for home healthcare. Arlington, VA, USA."},{"key":"ref_104","first-page":"2990","article-title":"Advances in biomaterials, drug delivery, and bionanotechnology","volume":"49","author":"Langer","year":"2003","journal-title":"Bioeng. Food Nat. Prod"},{"key":"ref_105","first-page":"77","article-title":"Moving smaller in drug discovery and delivery","volume":"1","author":"LaVan","year":"2002","journal-title":"Nat. Rev"},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1184","DOI":"10.1038\/nbt876","article-title":"Small-scale systems for in vivo drug delivery","volume":"21","author":"LaVan","year":"2003","journal-title":"Nat. Biotechnol"},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"496","DOI":"10.1038\/nmat1397","article-title":"Biomaterials functionalization using a novel peptide that selectively binds to a conducting polymer","volume":"4","author":"Sanghvi","year":"2005","journal-title":"Nat. Mater"},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.bioeng.2.1.9","article-title":"Physicochemical foundations and structural design of hydrogels in medicine and biology","volume":"2","author":"Peppas","year":"2000","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Biomed. Eng"},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1649","DOI":"10.1016\/j.addr.2004.02.014","article-title":"Nanoparticle and targeted systems for cancer therapy","volume":"56","author":"Blanchette","year":"2004","journal-title":"Adv. Drug Deliv. Rev"},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1537","DOI":"10.1016\/j.addr.2003.10.047","article-title":"Bottom-up design of biomimetic assemblies","volume":"56","author":"Tu","year":"2004","journal-title":"Adv. Drug Deliv. Rev"},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"421","DOI":"10.1021\/ar000180h","article-title":"Electronically transduced molecular mechanical and information functions on surfaces","volume":"34","author":"Shipway","year":"2001","journal-title":"Acc. Chem. Res"},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1533","DOI":"10.1016\/j.addr.2004.07.002","article-title":"Nanotechnology and biomimetic methods in therapeutics: Molecular scale control with some help from nature","volume":"56","author":"Hilt","year":"2004","journal-title":"Adv. Drug Deliv. Rev"},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"114","DOI":"10.1109\/MCOM.2007.313404","article-title":"Opportunities and challenges in using WPAN and WLAN technologies in medical environments","volume":"45","author":"Soomro","year":"2007","journal-title":"IEEE Commun. Mag"},{"key":"ref_114","unstructured":"Gao, T, Greenspan, D, Welsh, M, Juang, RR, and Alm, A (2005, January 1\u20135). Vital signs monitoring and patient tracking over a wireless network. Shanghai, China."},{"key":"ref_115","unstructured":"Otto, CA, Jovanov, E, and Milenkovic, EA (2006, January 4\u20136). WBAN-based system for health monitoring at home. Boston, MA, USA."},{"key":"ref_116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"415","DOI":"10.1109\/TITB.2004.837888","article-title":"AMON: A werable multiparameter medical monitoring and alert system","volume":"8","author":"Anliker","year":"2004","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Inform. Technol. Biomed"}],"updated-by":[{"DOI":"10.3390\/s120912375","type":"correction","label":"Correction","source":"publisher","updated":{"date-parts":[[2011,5,26]],"date-time":"2011-05-26T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1306368000000}}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/11\/6\/5561\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,4]],"date-time":"2025-08-04T07:33:47Z","timestamp":1754292827000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/11\/6\/5561"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2011,5,26]]},"references-count":116,"journal-issue":{"issue":"6","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2011,6]]}},"alternative-id":["s110605561"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s110605561","relation":{"correction":[{"id-type":"doi","id":"10.3390\/s120912375","asserted-by":"object"}]},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2011,5,26]]}}}