{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,9]],"date-time":"2026-03-09T20:32:53Z","timestamp":1773088373278,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":37,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"6","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2012,5,25]],"date-time":"2012-05-25T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1337904000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/3.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The paper presents an algorithm for estimating a pedestrian location in an urban environment. The algorithm is based on the particle filter and uses different data sources: a GPS receiver, inertial sensors, probability maps and a stereo camera. Inertial sensors are used to estimate a relative displacement of a pedestrian. A gyroscope estimates a change in the heading direction. An accelerometer is used to count a pedestrian\u2019s steps and their lengths. The so-called probability maps help to limit GPS inaccuracy by imposing constraints on pedestrian kinematics, e.g., it is assumed that a pedestrian cannot cross buildings, fences etc. This limits position inaccuracy to ca. 10 m. Incorporation of depth estimates derived from a stereo camera that are compared to the 3D model of an environment has enabled further reduction of positioning errors. As a result, for 90% of the time, the algorithm is able to estimate a pedestrian location with an error smaller than 2 m, compared to an error of 6.5 m for a navigation based solely on GPS.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s120606764","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2012,5,25]],"date-time":"2012-05-25T11:15:22Z","timestamp":1337944522000},"page":"6764-6801","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":22,"title":["Enhancing Positioning Accuracy in Urban Terrain by Fusing Data from a GPS Receiver, Inertial Sensors, Stereo-Camera and Digital Maps for Pedestrian Navigation"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"12","author":[{"given":"Przemyslaw","family":"Baranski","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Electronics, Technical University of Lodz, Wolczanska 211\/215, 90-924 Lodz, Poland"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Pawel","family":"Strumillo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Electronics, Technical University of Lodz, Wolczanska 211\/215, 90-924 Lodz, Poland"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2012,5,25]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Official U.S. Information Website about the GPS System Available online: http:\/\/www.gps.gov (accessed on 14 February 2012)."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"Modsching, M., Kramer, R., and Hagen, K. 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