{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,11]],"date-time":"2026-05-11T19:53:54Z","timestamp":1778529234834,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":141,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"10","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2012,10,12]],"date-time":"2012-10-12T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1350000000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/3.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Monitoring glucose concentration in the blood is essential in the therapy of diabetes, a pathology which affects about 350 million people around the World (three million in Italy), causes more than four million deaths per year and consumes a significant portion of the budget of national health systems (10% in Italy). In the last 15 years, several sensors with different degree of invasiveness have been proposed to monitor glycemia in a quasi-continuous way (up to 1 sample\/min rate) for relatively long intervals (up to 7 consecutive days). These continuous glucose monitoring (CGM) sensors have opened new scenarios to assess, off-line, the effectiveness of individual patient therapeutic plans from the retrospective analysis of glucose time-series, but have also stimulated the development of innovative on-line applications, such as hypo\/hyper-glycemia alert systems and artificial pancreas closed-loop control algorithms. In this review, we illustrate some significant Italian contributions, both from industry and academia, to the growth of the CGM sensors research area. In particular, technological, algorithmic and clinical developments performed in Italy will be discussed and put in relation with the advances obtained in the field in the wider international research community.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s121013753","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2012,10,15]],"date-time":"2012-10-15T04:01:17Z","timestamp":1350273677000},"page":"13753-13780","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":28,"title":["Italian Contributions to the Development of Continuous Glucose Monitoring Sensors for Diabetes Management"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"12","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3248-1393","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Giovanni","family":"Sparacino","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Information Engineering, University of Padova, Via Gradenigo 6\/B, 35131 Padova, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Mattia","family":"Zanon","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Information Engineering, University of Padova, Via Gradenigo 6\/B, 35131 Padova, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8041-2280","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Andrea","family":"Facchinetti","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Information Engineering, University of Padova, Via Gradenigo 6\/B, 35131 Padova, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Chiara","family":"Zecchin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Information Engineering, University of Padova, Via Gradenigo 6\/B, 35131 Padova, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Alberto","family":"Maran","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, Metabolic Division, University of Padova, Via Giustiniani 2, 35128 Padova, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Claudio","family":"Cobelli","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Information Engineering, University of Padova, Via Gradenigo 6\/B, 35131 Padova, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2012,10,12]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Available online: http:\/\/www.idf.org\/diabetesatlas\/ (accessed on 4 September 2012)."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"Report Sanit\u00e0 e Salute. Available online: http:\/\/www.istat.it\/dati\/catalogo\/20101119_00\/PDF\/cap3.pdf (accessed on 4 September 2012)."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1047","DOI":"10.2337\/diacare.27.5.1047","article-title":"Global prevalence of diabetes: Estimates for the year 2000 and projections for 2030","volume":"27","author":"Wild","year":"2004","journal-title":"Diabetes Care"},{"key":"ref_4","unstructured":"Available online: http:\/\/www.euro.who.int\/__data\/assets\/pdf_file\/0003\/98391\/E93348.pdf (accessed on 4 September 2012)."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"339","DOI":"10.1016\/j.numecd.2009.10.009","article-title":"ARNO Working Group. The direct economic cost of pharmacologically-treated diabetes in Italy-2006. The ARNO observatory","volume":"21","author":"Marchesini","year":"2011","journal-title":"Nutr. Metab. Cardiovasc. Dis."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"782","DOI":"10.1038\/414782a","article-title":"Global and societal implications of the diabetes epidemic","volume":"414","author":"Zimmet","year":"2001","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"54","DOI":"10.1109\/RBME.2009.2036073","article-title":"Diabetes: Models, Signals, and Control","volume":"2","author":"Cobelli","year":"2009","journal-title":"IEEE Rev. Biomed. Eng."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"966","DOI":"10.1177\/193229681100500420","article-title":"Lancing: quo vadis?","volume":"5","author":"Heinemann","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Diabetes Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"79","DOI":"10.1055\/s-0038-1634041","article-title":"The M2DM Project\u2014The experience of two Italian clinical sites with clinical evaluation of a multi-access service for the management of diabetes mellitus patients","volume":"45","author":"Larizza","year":"2006","journal-title":"Methods Inf. Med."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"178","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jdiacomp.2004.10.001","article-title":"Should minimal blood glucose variability become the gold standard of glycemic control?","volume":"19","author":"Hirsch","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Diabetes Complicat"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2433","DOI":"10.2337\/dc06-1085","article-title":"Evaluation of a new measure of blood glucose variability in diabetes","volume":"29","author":"Kovatchev","year":"2006","journal-title":"Diabetes Care"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"977","DOI":"10.1109\/TBME.2006.873388","article-title":"A stochastic model to assess the variability of blood glucose time series in diabetic patients self-monitoring","volume":"53","author":"Magni","year":"2006","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"62","DOI":"10.1177\/193229680700100111","article-title":"Optimizing display, analysis, interpretation and utility of self-monitoring of blood glucose (SMBG) data for management of patients with diabetes","volume":"1","author":"Rodbard","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Diabetes Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"365","DOI":"10.1089\/dia.2009.0136","article-title":"Comparison of the clinical information provided by the FreeStyle Navigator continuous interstitial glucose monitor versus traditional blood glucose readings","volume":"12","author":"McGarraugh","year":"2010","journal-title":"Diabetes Technol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1231","DOI":"10.2337\/diacare.28.5.1231","article-title":"Continuous glucose monitoring: Roadmap for 21st century diabetes therapy","volume":"28","author":"Klonoff","year":"2005","journal-title":"Diabetes Care"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1742-1241.2009.02272.x","article-title":"Continuous glucose monitoring","volume":"166","author":"Bode","year":"2010","journal-title":"Int. J. Clin. Pract. Suppl."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7404","DOI":"10.3390\/s100807404","article-title":"Use of sensors in the treatment and follow-up of patients with diabetes mellitus","volume":"10","author":"Torres","year":"2010","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"891","DOI":"10.1016\/S0956-5663(02)00216-6","article-title":"A microdialysis technique for continuous subcutaneous glucose monitoring in diabetic patients (Part 1)","volume":"18","author":"Poscia","year":"2003","journal-title":"Biosens. Bioelectron"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16","DOI":"10.1016\/j.diabres.2006.10.027","article-title":"Non-invasive glucose monitoring: Assessment of technologies and devices according to quantitative criteria","volume":"77","author":"Tura","year":"2007","journal-title":"Diabetes Res. Clin. Pract."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Vashist, S.K. (2012). Non-invasive glucose monitoring technology in diabetes management: A review. Anal. Chim. Acta, in press.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aca.2012.03.043"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"551","DOI":"10.1089\/dia.2009.0015","article-title":"New and improved methods to characterize glycemic variability using continuous glucose monitoring","volume":"11","author":"Rodbard","year":"2009","journal-title":"Diabetes Technol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2730","DOI":"10.2337\/dc06-1134","article-title":"Improved glycemic control in poorly controlled patients with type 1 diabetes using real-time continuous glucose monitoring","volume":"29","author":"Deiss","year":"2006","journal-title":"Diabete Care"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1464","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa0805017","article-title":"Continuous glucose monitoring and intensive treatment of type 1 diabetes","volume":"359","author":"Tamborlane","year":"2008","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"795","DOI":"10.2337\/dc10-1989","article-title":"Effect of continuous glucose monitoring on hypoglycemia in type 1 diabetes","volume":"34","author":"Battelino","year":"2011","journal-title":"Diabetes Care"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"311","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa1002853","article-title":"Effectiveness of sensor-augmented insulin-pump therapy in type 1 diabetes","volume":"363","author":"Bergenstal","year":"2010","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"449","DOI":"10.1586\/erd.11.22","article-title":"New-generation diabetes management: Glucose sensor-augmented insulin pump therapy","volume":"8","author":"Cengiz","year":"2011","journal-title":"Expert Rev. Med. Devices"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Langendam, M., Luijf, Y.M., Hooft, L., Devries, J.H., Mudde, A.H., and Scholten, R.J. (2012). Continuous glucose monitoring systems for type 1 diabetes mellitus. Cochrane Database Syst. Rev., in press.","DOI":"10.1002\/14651858.CD008101.pub2"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"98","DOI":"10.1177\/193229680800200114","article-title":"Telemedicine and diabetes management: Current challenges and future research directions","volume":"2","author":"Bellazzi","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Diabetes Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"55","DOI":"10.1177\/193229681100500108","article-title":"Utilizing information technologies for lifelong monitoring in diabetes patients","volume":"1","author":"Capozzi","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Diabetes Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.1177\/193229681100500102","article-title":"How continuous monitoring changes the interaction of patients with a mobile telemedicine system","volume":"5","author":"Rigla","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Diabetes Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"63","DOI":"10.1177\/193229681100500109","article-title":"Smart telemedicine support for continuous glucose monitoring: The embryo of a future global agent for diabetes care","volume":"5","author":"Rigla","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Diabetes Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"181","DOI":"10.2174\/157339908785294361","article-title":"Continuous glucose monitoring time series and hypo\/hyperglycemia prevention: Requirements, methods, open problems","volume":"4","author":"Sparacino","year":"2008","journal-title":"Curr. Diabetes Rev."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"53","DOI":"10.1109\/MEMB.2009.935711","article-title":"Quest for the artificial pancreas: Combining technology with treatment","volume":"29","author":"Harvey","year":"2010","journal-title":"IEEE Eng. Med. Biol. Mag."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"743","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(09)61998-X","article-title":"Manual closed-loop insulin delivery in children and adolescents with type 1 diabetes: A phase 2 randomised crossover trial","volume":"375","author":"Hovorka","year":"2010","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2672","DOI":"10.2337\/db11-0654","article-title":"Artificial pancreas: Past, present, future","volume":"60","author":"Cobelli","year":"2011","journal-title":"Diabetes"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecl.2011.12.003","article-title":"Closed-loop insulin delivery in type 1 diabetes","volume":"41","author":"Thabit","year":"2012","journal-title":"Endocrinol. Metab. Clin. North. Am."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2230","DOI":"10.2337\/db11-1445","article-title":"on behalf of The International Artificial Pancreas Study Group. Fully integrated artificial pancreas in type 1 diabetes: modular closed-loop glucose control maintains near normoglycemia","volume":"61","author":"Breton","year":"2012","journal-title":"Diabetes"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"728","DOI":"10.1089\/dia.2012.0004","article-title":"Feasibility study of automated overnight closed-loop glucose control under md-logic artificial pancreas in patients with type 1 diabetes: The DREAM project","volume":"14","author":"Nimri","year":"2012","journal-title":"Diabetes Technol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_39","unstructured":"Medtronic Diabetes Guardian CGM System. Available online: http:\/\/www.medtronicdiabetes.com\/products\/guardiancgm (accessed on 4 September 2012)."},{"key":"ref_40","unstructured":"http:\/\/www.dexcom.com\/seven-plus (accessed on 4 September 2012)."},{"key":"ref_41","unstructured":"Abbott Diabetes Care Available online: http:\/\/www.abbottdiabetescare.co.uk\/your-products\/freestyle-navigator (accessed on 4 September 2012)."},{"key":"ref_42","unstructured":"Available online: http:\/\/www.menarinidiag.co.uk\/Products\/continuous_glucose_monitoring\/introduction (accessed on 4 September 2012)."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1696","DOI":"10.2337\/diacare.24.9.1696","article-title":"Subcutaneous continuous glucose monitoring: Feasibility of a new microdialysis-based glucose sensor system","volume":"24","author":"Jungheim","year":"2001","journal-title":"Diabetes Care"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"63","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2007.912535","article-title":"Ex vivo continuous glucose monitoring with microdialysis technique: The example of GlucoDay","volume":"8","author":"Ricci","year":"2008","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S17","DOI":"10.1089\/dia.2008.0133","article-title":"The chemistry of commercial continuous glucose monitors","volume":"11","author":"McGarraugh","year":"2009","journal-title":"Diabetes Technol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"136","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clinbiochem.2008.09.112","article-title":"Continuous glucose monitoring: A review of biochemical perspectives and clinical use in type 1 diabetes","volume":"42","author":"Girardin","year":"2009","journal-title":"Clin. Biochem."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"814","DOI":"10.1021\/cr068123a","article-title":"Electrochemical glucose biosensors","volume":"108","author":"Wang","year":"2008","journal-title":"Chem. Rev."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"117","DOI":"10.1177\/193229680700100118","article-title":"The current environment of CGM technologies","volume":"1","author":"Ginsberg","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Diabetes Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1182","DOI":"10.1177\/193229681000400517","article-title":"Evaluating the clinical accuracy of GlucoMen\u00aeDay: A novel microdialysis-based continuous glucose monitor","volume":"4","author":"Valgimigli","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Diabetes Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2032","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bios.2006.08.041","article-title":"Toward continuous glucose monitoring with planar modified biosensors and microdialysis. Study of temperature, oxygen dependence and in vivo experiment","volume":"22","author":"Ricci","year":"2007","journal-title":"Biosens. Bioelectron"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1993","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bios.2004.09.010","article-title":"Novel planar glucose biosensors for continuous monitoring use","volume":"20","author":"Ricci","year":"2005","journal-title":"Biosens. Bioelectron"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1172","DOI":"10.1177\/193229681200600522","article-title":"GlucoMen Day Continuous Glucose Monitoring System: A Screening for Enzymatic and Electrochemical Interferents","volume":"6","author":"Lucarelli","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Diabetes Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"622","DOI":"10.2337\/diacare.10.5.622","article-title":"Evaluating clinical accuracy of systems for self-monitoring of blood glucose","volume":"10","author":"Clarke","year":"1987","journal-title":"Diabetes Care"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1922","DOI":"10.2337\/diacare.27.8.1922","article-title":"Evaluating the accuracy of continuous glucose-monitoring sensors: Continuous glucose-error grid analysis illustrated by TheraSense Freestyle Navigator data","volume":"27","author":"Kovatchev","year":"2004","journal-title":"Diabetes Care"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6751","DOI":"10.3390\/s100706751","article-title":"\u201cSmart\u201d continuous glucose monitoring sensors: On-line signal processing issues","volume":"10","author":"Sparacino","year":"2010","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"404","DOI":"10.1177\/193229681000400222","article-title":"Continuous glucose monitoring: Real-time algorithms for calibration, filtering, and alarms","volume":"4","author":"Bequette","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Diabetes Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1089\/dia.2005.7.3","article-title":"Hypoglycemia prediction and detection using optimal estimation","volume":"7","author":"Palerm","year":"2005","journal-title":"Diabetes Technol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"634","DOI":"10.1109\/TBME.2009.2033264","article-title":"An online self-tunable method to denoise CGM sensor data","volume":"57","author":"Facchinetti","year":"2010","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2664","DOI":"10.1109\/TBME.2011.2161083","article-title":"Online denoising method to handle intraindividual variability of signal-to-noise ratio in continuous glucose monitoring","volume":"58","author":"Facchinetti","year":"2011","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"E716","DOI":"10.1152\/ajpendo.2000.278.4.E716","article-title":"Interstitial glucose concentration and glycemia: Implications for continuous subcutaneous glucose monitoring","volume":"278","author":"Aussedat","year":"2000","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol. Endocrinol. Metab"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10936","DOI":"10.3390\/s101210936","article-title":"Estimating plasma glucose from interstitial glucose: The issue of calibration algorithms in commercial continuous glucose monitoring devices","volume":"10","author":"Rossetti","year":"2010","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"317","DOI":"10.1177\/193229680700100302","article-title":"Modeling of calibration effectiveness and blood-to-interstitial glucose dynamics as potential confounders of the accuracy of continuous glucose sensors during hyperinsulinemic clamp","volume":"1","author":"King","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Diabetes Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15","DOI":"10.1089\/dia.2005.7.15","article-title":"The extended Kalman filter for continuous glucose monitoring","volume":"7","author":"Knobbe","year":"2005","journal-title":"Diabetes Technol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"74","DOI":"10.1089\/dia.2011.0138","article-title":"A multiple local models approach to accuracy improvement in continuous glucose monitoring","volume":"14","author":"Bondia","year":"2012","journal-title":"Diabetes Technol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"353","DOI":"10.1089\/dia.2009.0158","article-title":"Enhanced accuracy of continuous glucose monitoring by online extended kalman filtering","volume":"12","author":"Facchinetti","year":"2010","journal-title":"Diabetes Technol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1658","DOI":"10.1109\/TBME.2012.2191782","article-title":"Enhancing the accuracy of subcutaneous glucose sensors: A real-time deconvolution-based approach","volume":"59","author":"Guerra","year":"2012","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"931","DOI":"10.1109\/TBME.2006.889774","article-title":"Glucose concentration can be predicted ahead in time from continuous glucose monitoring sensor time-series","volume":"54","author":"Sparacino","year":"2007","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"246","DOI":"10.1109\/TBME.2008.2005937","article-title":"Predicting subcutaneous glucose concentration in humans: Data-Driven glucose modeling","volume":"56","author":"Gani","year":"2009","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"243","DOI":"10.1089\/dia.2008.0065","article-title":"Estimation of future glucose concentrations with subject-specific recursive linear models","volume":"11","author":"Cinar","year":"2009","journal-title":"Diabetes Technol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"81","DOI":"10.1089\/dia.2009.0076","article-title":"Artificial neural network algorithm for online glucose prediction from continuous glucose monitoring","volume":"12","author":"Facchinetti","year":"2010","journal-title":"Diabetes Technol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"135","DOI":"10.1089\/dia.2010.0104","article-title":"Neural network-based real-time prediction of glucose in patients with insulin-dependent diabetes","volume":"13","author":"Pappada","year":"2011","journal-title":"Diabetes Technol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"181","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neunet.2012.05.004","article-title":"A meta-learning approach to the regularized learning-Case study: Blood glucose prediction","volume":"33","author":"Naumova","year":"2012","journal-title":"Neural Netw."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1249","DOI":"10.2337\/dc09-1487","article-title":"Real-time hypoglycemia prediction suite using continuous glucose monitoring: A safety net for the artificial pancreas","volume":"33","author":"Dassau","year":"2010","journal-title":"Diabetes Care"},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1013","DOI":"10.2337\/dc09-2303","article-title":"Prevention of nocturnal hypoglycemia using predictive alarm algorithms and insulin pump suspension","volume":"33","author":"Buckingham","year":"2010","journal-title":"Diabetes Care"},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111","DOI":"10.1089\/dia.2010.0151","article-title":"A new index to optimally design and compare continuous glucose monitoring glucose prediction algorithms","volume":"13","author":"Facchinetti","year":"2011","journal-title":"Diabetes Technol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"645","DOI":"10.1177\/193229680700100508","article-title":"Glucose prediction algorithms from continuous monitoring data: assessment of accuracy via continuous glucose error-grid analysis","volume":"1","author":"Zanderigo","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Diabetes Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"787","DOI":"10.1089\/dia.2011.0033","article-title":"Assessment of blood glucose predictors: The prediction-error grid analysis","volume":"13","author":"Sivananthan","year":"2011","journal-title":"Diabetes Technol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1550","DOI":"10.1109\/TBME.2012.2188893","article-title":"Neural network incorporating meal information improves accuracy of short-time prediction of glucose concentration. IEEE","volume":"59","author":"Zecchin","year":"2012","journal-title":"Trans. Biomed. Eng."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Facchinetti, A., Sparacino, G., Guerra, S., Luijf, Y.M., DeVries, J.H., Mader, J.K., Ellmerer, M., Benesch, C., Heinemann, L., Bruttomesso, D., Avogaro, A., and Cobelli, C. (2012). on behalf of the AP at home Consortium. Real-time improvement of continuous glucose monitoring accuracy: the smart sensor concept. Diabetes Care, in press.","DOI":"10.2337\/dc12-0736"},{"key":"ref_80","unstructured":"PubMed. Available online: http:\/\/www.pubmed.com (accessed on 4 September 2012)."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"347","DOI":"10.2337\/diacare.25.2.347","article-title":"Continuous subcutaneous glucose monitoring in diabetic patients: A multicenter analysis","volume":"25","author":"Maran","year":"2002","journal-title":"Diabetes Care"},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"326","DOI":"10.1089\/dia.2006.8.326","article-title":"Evaluation of the accuracy of a microdialysis-based glucose sensor during insulin-induced hypoglycemia, its recovery, and post-hypoglycemic hyperglycemia in humans","volume":"8","author":"Rossetti","year":"2006","journal-title":"Diabetes Technol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"527","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1464-5491.2007.02107.x","article-title":"Nocturnal hypoglycaemia in Type 1 diabetic patients, assessed with continuous glucose monitoring: frequency, duration and associations","volume":"24","author":"Wentholt","year":"2007","journal-title":"Diabetic Med."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"295","DOI":"10.1007\/s00592-010-0181-9","article-title":"Patients' evaluation of nocturnal hypoglycaemia with GlucoDay continuous glucose monitoring in paediatric patients","volume":"47","author":"Meschi","year":"2010","journal-title":"Acta Diabetol."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"763","DOI":"10.1089\/dia.2010.0038","article-title":"Continuous glucose monitoring reveals delayed nocturnal hypoglycemia after intermittent high-intensity exercise in nontrained patients with type 1 diabetes","volume":"12","author":"Maran","year":"2010","journal-title":"Diabetes Technol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"853","DOI":"10.1089\/dia.2010.0145","article-title":"Glucose variability in diabetic pregnancy","volume":"13","author":"Sartore","year":"2011","journal-title":"Diabetes Technol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"495","DOI":"10.1089\/dia.2008.0013","article-title":"Better postprandial glucose stability during continuous subcutaneous infusion with insulin aspart compared with insulin lispro in patients with type 1 diabetes","volume":"10","author":"Pellicano","year":"2008","journal-title":"Diabetes Technol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1605","DOI":"10.2337\/dc11-0034","article-title":"Impact of glycemic and blood pressure variability on surrogate measures of cardiovascular outcomes in type 2 diabetic patients","volume":"34","author":"Picconi","year":"2011","journal-title":"Diabetes Care"},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rizzo, M.R., Barbieri, M., Marfella, R., and Paolisso, G. (2012). Reduction of oxidative stress and inflammation by blunting daily acute glucose fluctuations in patients with type 2 diabetes: Role of dipeptidyl peptidase-IV inhibition. Diabetes Care, in press.","DOI":"10.2337\/dc12-0199"},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sartore, G., Chilelli, N.C., Burlina, S., Stefano, P.D., Piarulli, F., Fedele, D., Mosca, A., and Lapolla, A. (2012). The importance of HbA1c and glucose variability in patients with type 1 and type 2 diabetes: outcome of continuous glucose monitoring (CGM). Acta Diabetol., in press.","DOI":"10.1007\/s00592-012-0391-4"},{"key":"ref_91","unstructured":"DIAdvisor: Personal glucose predictive diabetes advisor. Available online: http:\/\/www.diadvisor.eu (accessed on 4 September 2012)."},{"key":"ref_92","unstructured":"Farret, A., Renard, E.M., Place, J., Mindlova, M., Vavrova, E., Saudek, F., Vedovato, M., Maran, A., and Avogaro, A. (2012, January 1\u20135). DIAdvisor consortium. Clinical assessment of DIAdvisor device shows high accuracy in glucose prediction at 20-min horizon and a coherence of most advices on therapy in patients with type 1 diabetes. Berlin, Germany."},{"key":"ref_93","unstructured":"Artificial Pancreas (AP) at Home. Available online: http:\/\/www.apathome.eu (accessed on 4 September 2012)."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1091","DOI":"10.1177\/193229680900300512","article-title":"Run-to-run tuning of model predictive control for type 1 diabetes subjects: in silico trial","volume":"1","author":"Magni","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Diabetes Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1363","DOI":"10.1177\/193229681100500607","article-title":"AP@home: A novel European approach to bring the artificial pancreas home","volume":"5","author":"Heinemann","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Diabetes Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_96","unstructured":"Renard, E.M., DeVries, J.H., Hovorka, R., Doll, W., Heinemann, L., Cobelli, C., Magni, L., Farret, A., Luijf, Y.M., Leelarathna, L., Mader, J.K., Benesch, C., Bruttomesso, D., Di Palma, F., and Nodale, M. (2012, January 1\u20135). Time in hypoglycaemia in patients with type 1 diabetes is dramatically reduced when insulin infusion is driven by two closed-loop algorithms in a randomised clinical trial. Berlin, Germany."},{"key":"ref_97","unstructured":"Yamakoshi, Y., Ogawa, M., Yamakoshi, T., Satoh, M., Nogawa, M., Tanaka, S., Tamura, T., Rolfe, P., and Yamakoshi, K. (August, January 22\u2013). A new non-invasive method for measuring blood glucose using instantaneous differential near infrared spectrophotometry. Lyon, France."},{"key":"ref_98","unstructured":"Berman, H.L., Roe, J.N., and Blair, R.N. (2003). Glucose measurement utilizing non-invasive assessment methods. (U.S. Patent 6,522,903)."},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cunningham, D.D., and Stenken, J.A. (2010). In Vivo Glucose Sensing, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.","DOI":"10.1002\/9780470567319"},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2023","DOI":"10.1088\/0031-9155\/48\/13\/313","article-title":"The use of Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy for the quantitative determination of glucose concentration in whole blood","volume":"48","author":"Shen","year":"2003","journal-title":"Phys. Med. Biol."},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"233","DOI":"10.1177\/193229680900300203","article-title":"C8 MediSensors. Requirements for calibration in noninvasive glucose monitoring by Raman spectroscopy","volume":"3","author":"Lipson","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Diabetes. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.1089\/152091503763816418","article-title":"Glucose correlation with light scattering patterns\u2013A novel method for non-invasive glucose measurements","volume":"5","author":"Cohen","year":"2003","journal-title":"Diabetes Technol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"188","DOI":"10.1089\/dia.2007.0277","article-title":"Optical coherence tomography-based continuous noninvasive glucose monitoring in patients with diabetes","volume":"10","author":"Gabbay","year":"2008","journal-title":"Diabetes Technol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100","DOI":"10.1016\/j.copbio.2004.12.007","article-title":"A glucose-sensing contact lens: From bench top to patient","volume":"16","author":"Badugu","year":"2005","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Biotech"},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pirnstill, C.W., Malik, B.H., Gresham, V.C., and Cot\u00e9, G.L. (2012). In vivo glucose monitoring using dual-wavelength polarimetry to overcome corneal birefringence in the presence of motion. Diabetes Technol. Ther., in press.","DOI":"10.1089\/dia.2012.0070"},{"key":"ref_106","unstructured":"Trombetta, P., and Londoni, V. (2011). Diode laser device for the non-invasive measurement of glycaemia. (U.S. Patent Appl. 2011\/0152647 A1)."},{"key":"ref_107","unstructured":"Londoni, V., and Trombetta, P. (2010). Diode laser device for the non-invasive measurement of glycaemia. (WO Patent. Appl. 2010\/013264 A1)."},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"924","DOI":"10.1373\/49.6.924","article-title":"Monitoring blood glucose changes in cutaneous tissue by temperature-modulated localized reflectance measurements","volume":"49","author":"Yeh","year":"2003","journal-title":"Clin. Chem."},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"68","DOI":"10.1089\/dia.2006.0059","article-title":"Non invasive continuous glucose monitoring using photoacoustic technology\u2014Results from the first 62 subjects","volume":"9","author":"Weiss","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Diabetes Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"22","DOI":"10.1080\/03091900410001720247","article-title":"Non-invasive glycaemia blood measurements by electromagnetic sensor: Study in static and dynamic blood circulation","volume":"29","author":"Gourzi","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Med. Eng. Technol."},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5346","DOI":"10.3390\/s100605346","article-title":"A low frequency electromagnetic sensor for indirect measurement of glucose concentration: In vitro experiments in different conductive solutions","volume":"10","author":"Tura","year":"2010","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"209","DOI":"10.1016\/S0956-5663(03)00196-9","article-title":"First human experiments with a novel non-invasive, non-optical continuous glucose monitoring system","volume":"19","author":"Caduff","year":"2003","journal-title":"Biosens. Bioelectron"},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1055","DOI":"10.1007\/s00125-005-1754-y","article-title":"Pendra goes Dutch: Lessons for the CE mark in Europe","volume":"48","author":"Wentholt","year":"2005","journal-title":"Diabetologia"},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"235","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bpc.2007.06.001","article-title":"Impedance spectroscopy of solutions at physiological glucose concentrations","volume":"129","author":"Tura","year":"2007","journal-title":"Biophys. Chem."},{"key":"ref_115","first-page":"55","article-title":"Design of a dielectric spectroscopy sensor for continuous and non-invasive blood glucose monitoring","volume":"3","author":"Gelao","year":"2012","journal-title":"IJAE&T"},{"key":"ref_116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2778","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bios.2009.02.001","article-title":"Non-invasive glucose monitoring in patients with Type 1 diabetes: A multisensor system combining sensors for dielectric and optical characterisation of skin","volume":"24","author":"Caduff","year":"2009","journal-title":"Biosens. Bioelectron"},{"key":"ref_117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"583","DOI":"10.1177\/193229681000400312","article-title":"Noninvasive glucose monitoring: increasing accuracy by combination of multi-technology and multi-sensors","volume":"4","author":"Gal","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Diabetes Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2009.04.023","article-title":"Multiparameter techniques for non-invasive measurement of blood glucose","volume":"140","author":"Amaral","year":"2009","journal-title":"Sens. Actuat. B Chem."},{"key":"ref_119","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21","DOI":"10.1089\/152091599317530","article-title":"Fluorescein kinetics in interstitial fluid harvested from diabetic skin during fluorescein angiography: implications for glucose monitoring","volume":"1","author":"Smith","year":"1999","journal-title":"Diabetes Technol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_120","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.3310\/hta13280","article-title":"A randomised controlled trial to compare minimally invasive glucose monitoring devices with conventional monitoring in the management of insulin-treated diabetes mellitus (MITRE)","volume":"13","author":"Newman","year":"2009","journal-title":"Health Technol. Assess"},{"key":"ref_121","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"595","DOI":"10.1177\/193229680800200410","article-title":"Pilot studies of transedrmal continuous glucose measurement in outpatient diabetic and inpatients during and after cardiac surgery","volume":"2","author":"Chuang","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Diabetes Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_122","first-page":"33","article-title":"Advances in the development of devices for noninvasive glycemia monitoring: Who will win the race?","volume":"28","author":"Tura","year":"2010","journal-title":"NT&M"},{"key":"ref_123","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"541","DOI":"10.1016\/j.medengphy.2007.06.003","article-title":"Current development in non-invasive glucose monitoring","volume":"30","author":"Wolf","year":"2008","journal-title":"Med. Eng. Phys."},{"key":"ref_124","unstructured":"Srinivasan, V., Pamula, V.K., Pollack, M.G., and Fair, R.B. (2003, January 5\u20139). Clinical diagnostics on human whole blood, plasma, serum, urine, saliva, sweat, and tears on a digital microfluidic platform. Squaw Valley, CA, USA."},{"key":"ref_125","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6104","DOI":"10.1021\/ac100810e","article-title":"Accurate spectroscopic calibration for noninvasive glucose monitoring by modeling the physiological glucose dynamics","volume":"82","author":"Barman","year":"2010","journal-title":"Anal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_126","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"694","DOI":"10.1177\/193229681100500324","article-title":"Data processing for noninvasive continuous glucose monitoring with a Multisensor device","volume":"5","author":"Mueller","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Diabetes. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_127","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"031114","DOI":"10.1117\/1.1920212","article-title":"Raman spectroscopy for noninvasive glucose measurements","volume":"10","author":"Enejder","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Biomed. Opt."},{"key":"ref_128","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"454","DOI":"10.1177\/193229680700100402","article-title":"Selectivity assessment of noninvasive glucose measurements based on analysis of multivariate calibration vectors","volume":"1","author":"Arnold","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Diabetes Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_129","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1047","DOI":"10.1007\/s11517-012-0932-6","article-title":"Non-invasive continuous glucose monitoring: Improved accuracy of point and trend estimates of the Multisensor system","volume":"50","author":"Zanon","year":"2012","journal-title":"Med. Biol. Eng. Comput."},{"key":"ref_130","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3794","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bios.2011.02.034","article-title":"Characteristics of a multisensor system for non invasive glucose monitoring with external validation and prospective evaluation","volume":"26","author":"Caduff","year":"2011","journal-title":"Biosens. Bioelectron"},{"key":"ref_131","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"333","DOI":"10.1007\/s00592-011-0292-y","article-title":"A 4-h hyperglycaemic excursion induces rapid and slow changes in major electrolytes in blood in healthy human subjects","volume":"49","author":"Caduff","year":"2011","journal-title":"Acta Diabetol."},{"key":"ref_132","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"371","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jdiacomp.2007.03.011","article-title":"Noninvasive blood glucose monitoring using the optical signal of pulsatile microcirculation: A pilot study in subjects with diabetes","volume":"22","author":"Chen","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Diabetes Complicat"},{"key":"ref_133","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"253","DOI":"10.1177\/193229680900300205","article-title":"Noninvasive glucose monitoring: A novel approach","volume":"3","author":"Gal","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Diabetes Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_134","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"463","DOI":"10.1177\/193229680700100403","article-title":"Continuous noninvasive glucose monitoring technology based on occlusion spectroscopy","volume":"1","author":"Amir","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Diabetes. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_135","unstructured":"C8 Medisensor Optical Glucose Monitor. Available online: http:\/\/www.c8medisensors.com\/home\/ (accessed on 5 September 2012)."},{"key":"ref_136","unstructured":"Bolla, A.M., Ceriotti, F., De Terlizzi, C., Molinari, C., Perticone, F., Trombetta, P., Scavini, M., and Bosi, E. (2012, January 8\u201311). Accuracy of a new laser technology device for non invasive measurement of glucose in man. Barcelona, Spain."},{"key":"ref_137","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"843","DOI":"10.1089\/dia.2011.0006","article-title":"A dynamic risk measure from continuous glucose monitoring data","volume":"13","author":"Guerra","year":"2011","journal-title":"Diabetes Technol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_138","unstructured":"Zecchin, C., Facchinetti, A., Manohar, C., Kudva, Y.C., Levine, J.A., Basu, A., Sparacino, G., Dalla Man, C., and Cobelli, C. (2012, January 8\u201310). Physical activity measured by PAMS device correlates with first- and second-order glucose concentration derivatives. Bethesda, MD, USA."},{"key":"ref_139","unstructured":"Facchinetti, A., Del Favero, S., Sparacino, G., and Cobelli, C. (3, January 30). Detecting failures of the glucose sensor-insulin pump system: Improved overnight safety monitoring for Type-1 diabetes. Boston, MA, USA."},{"key":"ref_140","unstructured":"Zanon, M., Sparacino, G., Facchinetti, A., Talary, M.S., Caduff, A., and Cobelli, C. (2012, January 8\u201310). Non-invasive continuous glucose monitoring by multisensor system: improved accuracy using an elastic net regression. Bethesda, MD, USA."},{"key":"ref_141","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e65","DOI":"10.2337\/dc12-0660","article-title":"Pilot studies of wearable outpatient artificial pancreas in type 1 diabetes","volume":"35","author":"Cobelli","year":"2012","journal-title":"Diabetes Care"}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/12\/10\/13753\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T21:52:47Z","timestamp":1760219567000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/12\/10\/13753"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2012,10,12]]},"references-count":141,"journal-issue":{"issue":"10","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2012,10]]}},"alternative-id":["s121013753"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s121013753","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2012,10,12]]}}}