{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,6]],"date-time":"2026-10-06T12:26:24Z","timestamp":1791289584690,"version":"4.3.0"},"reference-count":118,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2013,3,6]],"date-time":"2013-03-06T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1362528000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/3.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>As more chemotherapy-treated cancer patients are reaching survivorship,  side-effects such as cognitive impairment warrant research attention. The advent of neuroimaging has helped uncover a neural basis for these deficits. This paper offers a review of neuroimaging investigations in chemotherapy-treated adult cancer patients, discussing the benefits and limitations of each technique and study design. Additionally, despite the assumption given by the chemobrain label that chemotherapy is the only causative agent of these deficits, other factors will be considered. Suggestions are made on how to more comprehensively study these cognitive changes using imaging techniques, thereby promoting generalizability of the results to clinical applications. Continued investigations may yield better long-term quality of life outcomes by supporting patients\u2019 self-reports, and revealing brain regions being affected by chemotherapy.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s130303169","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2013,3,6]],"date-time":"2013-03-06T11:11:47Z","timestamp":1362568307000},"page":"3169-3203","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":59,"title":["Opening up the Window into \u201cChemobrain\u201d:  A Neuroimaging Review"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"given":"Carole","family":"Scherling","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Memory and Aging Center, Neurology, UCSF, Sandler Neuroscience Center,  675 Nelson Rising Lane, San Francisco, CA 94158, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Andra","family":"Smith","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Psychology, University of Ottawa, Vanier Hall, 136 Jean Jacques Lussier, Ottawa,  ON K1N 6N5, Canada"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2013,3,6]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1457","DOI":"10.1200\/JCO.1996.14.5.1457","article-title":"Psychologic and neuropsychologic impact of autologous bone marrow transplantation","volume":"14","author":"Ahles","year":"1996","journal-title":"J. Clin. Oncol."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"485","DOI":"10.1200\/JCO.2002.20.2.485","article-title":"Neuropsychologic impact of standard-dose systemic chemotherapy in long-term survivors of breast cancer and lymphoma","volume":"20","author":"Ahles","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Clin. Oncol."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"422","DOI":"10.1002\/pon.964","article-title":"Cognitive impairment associated with adjuvant therapy in breast cancer","volume":"15","author":"Bender","year":"2006","journal-title":"Psycho-Oncology"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1075","DOI":"10.1016\/0277-5379(91)90295-O","article-title":"Late effects of adjuvant chemotherapy on quality of life among breast cancer patients","volume":"27","author":"Berglund","year":"1991","journal-title":"Eur. J. Cancer"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2695","DOI":"10.1200\/JCO.2000.18.14.2695","article-title":"Cognitive function in breast cancer patients receiving adjuvant chemotherapy","volume":"18","author":"Brezden","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Clin. Oncol."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"955","DOI":"10.1080\/13803390490510905","article-title":"Neurocognitive performance in breast cancer survivors exposed to adjuvant chemotherapy and tamoxifen","volume":"26","author":"Castellon","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Clini. Exp. Neuropsychol."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"117","DOI":"10.1358\/mf.2003.25.2.723685","article-title":"The effects of anticancer chemotherapeutic drugs on cognitive function and other neuropsychiatric dimensions in breast cancer patients","volume":"25","author":"Gottschalk","year":"2003","journal-title":"Methods Find. Exp. Clin. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"925","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1532-5415.2006.00732.x","article-title":"Cognitive function of older patients receiving adjuvant chemotherapy for breast cancer: A pilot prospective longitudinal study","volume":"54","author":"Hurria","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Am. Geriatr. Soc."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"828","DOI":"10.1038\/sj.bjc.6603029","article-title":"A 3-year prospective study of the effects of adjuvant treatments on cognition in women with early stage breast cancer","volume":"94","author":"Jenkins","year":"2006","journal-title":"Brit. J. Cancer"},{"key":"ref_10","first-page":"8025","article-title":"Fatigue, menopausal symptoms, and cognitive function in women after adjuvant chemotherapy for breast cancer: 1- and 2-year follow-up of a prospective controlled study","volume":"31","author":"Yi","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Clin. Oncol."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"640","DOI":"10.1002\/(SICI)1097-0142(19990201)85:3<640::AID-CNCR14>3.0.CO;2-G","article-title":"Cognitive deficits after postoperative adjuvant chemotherapy for breast carcinoma","volume":"85","author":"Schagen","year":"1999","journal-title":"Cancer"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"415","DOI":"10.1093\/annonc\/mdj108","article-title":"Neuropsychological function in high-risk breast cancer survivors after stem-cell supported high-dose therapy versus standard-dose chemotherapy: Evaluation of long-term treatment effects","volume":"17","author":"Scherwath","year":"2006","journal-title":"Ann. Oncol."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2017","DOI":"10.1002\/cncr.10891","article-title":"Relations between fatigue, neuropsychological functioning, and physical activity after treatment for breast carcinoma: Daily self-report and objective behavior","volume":"95","author":"Servaes","year":"2002","journal-title":"Cancer"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"142","DOI":"10.1016\/j.breast.2004.10.004","article-title":"The effects of adjuvant chemotherapy on cognition in women with breast cancer\u2014Preliminary results of an observational longitudinal study","volume":"14","author":"Shilling","year":"2005","journal-title":"Breast"},{"key":"ref_15","first-page":"1","article-title":"The cognitive effects of adjuvant chemotherapy in early stage breast cancer: A prospective study","volume":"17","author":"Stewart","year":"2007","journal-title":"Psycho-Oncology"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4175","DOI":"10.1200\/JCO.2003.01.119","article-title":"Cognitive function, fatigue, and menopausal symptoms in women receiving adjuvant chemotherapy for breast cancer","volume":"21","author":"Tchen","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Clin. Oncol."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"210","DOI":"10.1093\/jnci\/90.3.210","article-title":"Impairment of cognitive function in women receiving adjuvant treatment for high-risk breast cancer: High-dose versus standard-dose chemotherapy","volume":"90","author":"Schagen","year":"1998","journal-title":"J. Nat. Cancer Inst."},{"key":"ref_18","unstructured":"Wagner, L.I., Sweet, J.J., Butt, Z., Desai, J., Beaumont, J., Havlin, K.A., and Cella, D. (2006, January 20). Cognitive Impairment Associated with Chemotherapy for Breast Cancer: An Exploratory Case-Control Study. Atlanta, GA, USA."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2292","DOI":"10.1002\/cncr.20272","article-title":"The cognitive sequelae of standard-dose adjuvant chemotherapy in women with breast carcinoma","volume":"100","author":"Wefel","year":"2004","journal-title":"Cancer"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"61","DOI":"10.1002\/pon.2960040108","article-title":"Neuropsychological assessment of cognitive functioning following chemotherapy for breast cancer","volume":"4","author":"Wieneke","year":"1995","journal-title":"Psycho-Oncology"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"134","DOI":"10.1002\/pon.1379","article-title":"Cognitive effects of chemotherapy in post-menopausal breast cancer patients 1 year after treatment","volume":"18","author":"Collins","year":"2009","journal-title":"Psycho-Oncology"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1189","DOI":"10.1002\/pon.1342","article-title":"Preliminary results of a longitudinal study of changes in cognitive function in breast cancer patients undergoing chemotherapy with doxorubicin and cyclophosphamide","volume":"17","author":"Jansen","year":"2008","journal-title":"Psycho-Oncology"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113","DOI":"10.1007\/s10549-008-0114-2","article-title":"Cognitive impairments associated with breast cancer treatments: results from a longitudinal study","volume":"116","author":"Quesnel","year":"2009","journal-title":"Breast Cancer Res. Treat."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3348","DOI":"10.1002\/cncr.25098","article-title":"Acute and late onset cognitive dysfunction sssociated with chemotherapy in women with breast cancer","volume":"116","author":"Wefel","year":"2010","journal-title":"Cancer"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2499","DOI":"10.1002\/cncr.21482","article-title":"Cognitive functioning after adjuvant chemotherapy and\/or radiotherapy for early-stage breast carcinoma","volume":"104","author":"Donovan","year":"2005","journal-title":"Cancer"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"57","DOI":"10.1097\/SPC.0b013e32813a328f","article-title":"Cognitive adverse effects of chemotherapy in breast cancer patients","volume":"1","author":"Correa","year":"2007","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Support. Palliat. Care."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18","DOI":"10.1097\/01.anes.0000296071.19434.1e","article-title":"Predictors of cognitive dysfunction after major noncardiac surgery","volume":"108","author":"Monk","year":"2008","journal-title":"Anesthesiology"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"324","DOI":"10.1080\/13803390903032537","article-title":"Prechemotherapy alterations in brain function in women with breast cancer","volume":"32","author":"Cimprich","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Clini. Exp. Neuropsychol."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.3389\/fnhum.2011.00122","article-title":"Pre-chemotherapy differences in working memory in breast cancer patients compared to controls: An fMRI study","volume":"5","author":"Scherling","year":"2011","journal-title":"Front Hum. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"543","DOI":"10.1080\/13803395.2012.666227","article-title":"Pre-chemotherapy differences in response inhibition in breast cancer patients compared to controls: An fMRI study","volume":"34","author":"Scherling","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Clin. Exp. Neuropsychol."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.5539\/ijb.v4n2p3","article-title":"Structural brain differences in breast cancer patients compared to matched controls prior to chemotherapy","volume":"4","author":"Scherling","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Int. Biol."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"396","DOI":"10.1097\/PPO.0b013e31818d8769","article-title":"Neurocognitive changes in cancer survivors","volume":"14","author":"Correa","year":"2008","journal-title":"Cancer J."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"267","DOI":"10.1007\/s11910-012-0264-9","article-title":"Chemotherapy-related cognitive dysfunction","volume":"12","author":"Wefel","year":"2012","journal-title":"Curr. Neurol. Neurosci Rep."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"135","DOI":"10.3109\/07357907.2011.636116","article-title":"Neurocognitive effects of chemotherapy and endocrine therapies in the treatment of breast cancer: recent perspectives","volume":"30","author":"Walker","year":"2012","journal-title":"Cancer Invest."},{"key":"ref_35","first-page":"442","article-title":"Neuroimaging findings in breast cancer: A systematic qualitative review","volume":"1","author":"Ferreira","year":"2009","journal-title":"Int. J. Med. Med. Sci."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"70","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4419-6306-2_10","article-title":"Imaging as a means of studying chemotherapy-related cognitive impairment","volume":"678","author":"Raffa","year":"2010","journal-title":"Adv. Exp. Med. Biol."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"623","DOI":"10.1093\/annonc\/mdm500","article-title":"Cancer and cancer-therapy related cognitive dysfunction: an international perspective from the Venice cognitive workshop","volume":"19","author":"Vardy","year":"2008","journal-title":"Ann. Oncol."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"703","DOI":"10.1016\/S1470-2045(10)70294-1","article-title":"International Cognition and Cancer Task Force recommendations to harmonise studies of cognitive function in patients with cancer","volume":"12","author":"Wefel","year":"2011","journal-title":"Lancet Oncol."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"A29","DOI":"10.1227\/01.NEU.0000351279.78110.00","article-title":"MR neurography and diffusion tensor imaging: Origins, history clinical impact of the first 50,000 cases with an assessment of efficacy and utility in a prospective 5,000 patient study group","volume":"65","author":"Filler","year":"2009","journal-title":"Neurosurgery"},{"key":"ref_40","unstructured":"Johansen-Berg, H., and Behrens, T.E.J. (2009). Diffusion MRI: From Quantitative Measurement to in vivo Neuroanatomy, London: Academic Press, Elsevier Science Technology."},{"key":"ref_41","first-page":"217","article-title":"White matter disease induced by high-dose chemotherapy: Longitudinal study with MR imaging and proton spectroscopy","volume":"19","author":"Brown","year":"1998","journal-title":"Amer. J. Neuroradiol."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"146","DOI":"10.1002\/cncr.22368","article-title":"Smaller regional volumes of brain gray and white matter demonstrated in breast cancer survivors exposed to adjuvant chemotherapy","volume":"109","author":"Inagaki","year":"2007","journal-title":"Cancer"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"819","DOI":"10.1007\/s10549-010-1088-4","article-title":"Gray matter reduction associated with systemic chemotherapy for breast cancer: a prospective MRI study","volume":"123","author":"McDonald","year":"2010","journal-title":"Breast Cancer Res. Treat."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"303","DOI":"10.1007\/s10549-006-9380-z","article-title":"Altered frontocortical, cerebellar, and basal ganglia activity in adjuvant-treated breast cancer survivors 5\u201310 years after chemotherapy","volume":"103","author":"Silverman","year":"2007","journal-title":"Breast Cancer Res. Treat."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1099","DOI":"10.1007\/s10549-011-1888-1","article-title":"Global and focal brain volume in long-term breast cancer survivors exposed to adjuvant chemotherapy","volume":"132","author":"Koppelmans","year":"2012","journal-title":"Breast Cancer Res. Treat."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"McDonald, B.C., Conroy, S.K., Smith, D.J., West, J.D., and Saykin, A.J. (2012). Frontal gray matter reduction after breast cancer chemotherapy and association with executive symptoms: A replication and extension study. Brain Behav. Immunity.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbi.2012.05.007"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"28","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-2377-12-28","article-title":"Altered small-world properties of gray matter networks in breast cancer","volume":"12","author":"Hosseini","year":"2012","journal-title":"BMC Neurol."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"88","DOI":"10.3816\/CBC.2008.n.007","article-title":"Adjuvant chemotherapy for breast cancer: Effects on cerebral white matter seen in diffusion tensor imaging","volume":"8","author":"Abraham","year":"2008","journal-title":"Clin. Breast Cancer"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"480","DOI":"10.1002\/hbm.21033","article-title":"Chemotherapy-induced structural changes in cerebral white matter and its correlation with impaired cognitive functioning in breast cancer patients","volume":"32","author":"Deprez","year":"2010","journal-title":"Hum. Brain Mapp."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"637","DOI":"10.1148\/radiology.201.3.8939209","article-title":"Diffusion tensor MR imaging of the human brain","volume":"201","author":"Pierpaoli","year":"1996","journal-title":"Radiology"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"209","DOI":"10.1006\/jmrb.1996.0086","article-title":"Microstructural and physiological features of tissues elucidated by quantitative-diffusion-tensor MRI","volume":"111","author":"Basser","year":"1996","journal-title":"J. Magn. Resonance Ser. B."},{"key":"ref_52","first-page":"1462","article-title":"Correlation of multiple sclerosis measures derived from T2-weighted, T1-weighted, magnetization transfer, and diffusion tensor MR imaging","volume":"22","author":"Iannucci","year":"2001","journal-title":"Amer. J. Neuroradiol."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"81","DOI":"10.1016\/S0022-510X(00)00339-7","article-title":"Variations in T1 and T2 relaxation times of normal appearing white matter and lesions in multiple sclerosis","volume":"178","author":"Stevenson","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Neurol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"274","DOI":"10.1200\/JCO.2011.36.8571","article-title":"Longitudinal assessment of chemotherapy-induced structural changes in cerebral white matter and its correlation with impaired cognitive functioning","volume":"30","author":"Deprez","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Clin. Oncol."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2971","DOI":"10.1002\/hbm.21422","article-title":"Late effects of high-dose adjuvant chemotherapy on white and gray matter in breast cancer survivors: Converging results from multimodal magnetic resonance imaging","volume":"33","author":"Reneman","year":"2012","journal-title":"Hum. Brain Mapp."},{"key":"ref_56","first-page":"1181","article-title":"Cerebral hyporesponsiveness and cognitive impairment 10 years after chemotherapy for breast cancer","volume":"32","author":"Reneman","year":"2011","journal-title":"Hum. Brain Mapp."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"357","DOI":"10.1017\/S0140525X00058027","article-title":"Is the P300 component a manifestation of context updating","volume":"11","author":"Donchin","year":"1988","journal-title":"Behav. Brain Sci."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"557","DOI":"10.1017\/S0048577201990559","article-title":"On the utility of P3 amplitude as a measure of processing capacity","volume":"38","author":"Kok","year":"2001","journal-title":"Psychophysiology"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"27","DOI":"10.1016\/S0166-2236(00)01995-0","article-title":"How well do we understand the neural origins of the fMRI BOLD signal?","volume":"25","author":"Arthurs","year":"2002","journal-title":"Trend. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"735","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.physiol.66.082602.092845","article-title":"Interpreting the BOLD signal","volume":"66","author":"Logothetis","year":"2004","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"53","DOI":"10.1007\/s10549-005-7093-3","article-title":"Electrophysiological correlates of information processing in breast-cancer patients treated with adjuvant chemotherapy","volume":"94","author":"Kreukels","year":"2005","journal-title":"Breast Cancer Res. Treat."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"67","DOI":"10.3816\/CBC.2006.n.015","article-title":"Effects of high-dose and conventional-dose adjuvant chemotherapy on long-term cognitive sequelae in patients with breast cancer: An electrophysiologic study","volume":"7","author":"Kreukels","year":"2006","journal-title":"Clin. Breast Cancer"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"533","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clinph.2007.11.011","article-title":"ERP amplitude and latency in breast cancer survivors treated with adjuvant chemotherapy","volume":"119","author":"Kreukels","year":"2008","journal-title":"Clin. Neurophysiol."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5675","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.89.12.5675","article-title":"Dynamic magnetic resonance imaging of human brain activity during primary sensory stimulation","volume":"89","author":"Kwong","year":"1992","journal-title":"Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1004","DOI":"10.1006\/nimg.2001.0899","article-title":"Differential working memory load effects after mild traumatic brain injury","volume":"14","author":"McAllister","year":"2001","journal-title":"NeuroImage"},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Smith, A.M., Fried, P., Hogan, M., and Cameron, I. (2004a). Effects of prenatal marijuana exposure on response inhibition: An fMRI study of young adults. Neurotoxicol. Teratol., 533\u2013542.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ntt.2004.04.004"},{"key":"ref_67","first-page":"147","article-title":"The effects of prenatal and current marijuana exposure on response inhibition: A functional magnetic resonance imaging study","volume":"54","author":"Smith","year":"2004","journal-title":"Brain Cognition"},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"329","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nbd.2012.07.009","article-title":"Altered resting state functional brain network topology in chemotherapy-treated breast cancer survivors","volume":"48","author":"Bruno","year":"2012","journal-title":"Neurobiol. Disease"},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3866","DOI":"10.1200\/JCO.2007.10.8639","article-title":"Brain structure and function differences in monozygotic twins: possible effects of breast cancer chemotherapy","volume":"25","author":"Ferguson","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Clin. Oncol."},{"key":"ref_70","unstructured":"Saykin, A.J., McDonald, B.C., Ahles, T., Chesnut, L.A., Wang, P.J., Furstenberg, C.T., Horrigan, S.A., and Mamourian, A.C. (2006, January 1\u20134). Altered Brain Activation Following Systemic Chemotherapy for Breast Cancer: Interim Analysis from a Prospective fMRI Study. Boston, MA, USA."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6665","DOI":"10.1158\/1078-0432.CCR-09-1227","article-title":"Regional brain activation during verbal declarative memory in metastatic breast cancer","volume":"15","author":"Kesler","year":"2009","journal-title":"Clin. Cancer Res."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1447","DOI":"10.1001\/archneurol.2011.245","article-title":"Prefrontal cortex and executive function impairments in primary breast cancer","volume":"68","author":"Kesler","year":"2011","journal-title":"Arch. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2500","DOI":"10.1200\/JCO.2011.38.5674","article-title":"Alterations in brain activation during working memory processing associated with breast cancer and treatment: A prospective functional magnetic resonance imaging study","volume":"30","author":"McDonald","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Clin. Oncol."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lopez-Zunini, R.A., Scherling, C., Wallis, N., Collins, B., MacKenzie, J., Bielajew, C., and Smith, A.M. (2013). Differences in verbal memory retrieval in breast cancer chemotherapy patients compared to healthy controls: A prospective fMRI study. Brain Imag. Behavior.","DOI":"10.1007\/s11682-012-9213-0"},{"key":"ref_75","unstructured":"Poldrack, R.A. Neuroimaging: Separating the Promise from the Pipe Dream. Available online: http:\/\/www.dana.org\/news\/cerebrum\/detail.aspx?id=22220 (accessed on 28 May 2009)."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1387","DOI":"10.1093\/annonc\/mdf241","article-title":"Late effects of adjuvant chemotherapy on cognitive function: A follow-up study in breast cancer patients","volume":"132","author":"Schagen","year":"2002","journal-title":"Ann. Oncol."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ejon.2006.02.005","article-title":"Self-reported cognitive problems in women receiving adjuvant therapy for breast cancer","volume":"11","author":"Shilling","year":"2007","journal-title":"Eur. J. Oncol. Nurs."},{"key":"ref_78","unstructured":"Saigh, P.A., and Bremner, J.D. (1999). Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: A Comprehensive Text, Allyn Bacon."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"271","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1749-6632.1997.tb48286.x","article-title":"Stress effects on morphology and function of the hippocampus","volume":"821","author":"McEwen","year":"1997","journal-title":"Ann. N Y Acad. Sci."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1228","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.05-05-01228.1985","article-title":"A possible mechanism for glucocorticoid toxicity in the hippocampus: increased vulnerability of neurons to metabolic insults","volume":"5","author":"Sapolsky","year":"1985","journal-title":"J. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"420","DOI":"10.1037\/0735-7044.113.3.420","article-title":"Working memory is more sensitive than declarative memory to the acute effects of corticosteroids: A dose-response study in humans","volume":"113","author":"Lupien","year":"1999","journal-title":"Behav. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"323","DOI":"10.3109\/10253891003642394","article-title":"High-intensity stress elicits robust cortisol increases, and impairs working memory and visuo-spatial declarative memory in Special Forces candidates: A field experiment","volume":"13","author":"Taverniers","year":"2010","journal-title":"Stress"},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"133","DOI":"10.1080\/10253890600965773","article-title":"Psychosocial stress impairs working memory at high loads: An association with cortisol levels and memory retrieval","volume":"9","author":"Oei","year":"2006","journal-title":"Stress"},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"756","DOI":"10.1016\/0006-3223(92)90079-F","article-title":"Hippocampal formation volume, memory dysfunction, and cortisol levels in patients with Cushing's syndrome","volume":"32","author":"Starkman","year":"1992","journal-title":"Biol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"49","DOI":"10.1006\/frne.1998.0173","article-title":"Stress and the aging hippocampus","volume":"20","author":"McEwen","year":"1999","journal-title":"Front. Neuroendocrinol."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"815","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2005.06.014","article-title":"Self-esteem, locus of control, hippocampal volume, and cortisol regulation in young and old adulthood","volume":"28","author":"Pruessner","year":"2005","journal-title":"NeuroImage"},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"191","DOI":"10.1016\/0305-7372(94)90027-2","article-title":"Neurotoxicity secondary to antineoplastic drugs","volume":"20","author":"Tuxen","year":"1994","journal-title":"Cancer Treat. Rev."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"29","DOI":"10.1002\/(SICI)1099-1611(200001\/02)9:1<29::AID-PON428>3.0.CO;2-Z","article-title":"Cisplatin-based therapy: A neurological and neuropsychological review","volume":"9","author":"Troy","year":"2000","journal-title":"Psycho-Oncology"},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1082","DOI":"10.1016\/j.psyneuen.2003.11.003","article-title":"Flattened cortisol rhythms in metastatic breast cancer patients","volume":"29","author":"Abercrombie","year":"2004","journal-title":"Psychoneuro-Endocrinology"},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1231","DOI":"10.1016\/j.psyneuen.2006.09.004","article-title":"Stress sensitivity in metastatic breast cancer: analysis of hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis function","volume":"31","author":"Spiegel","year":"2006","journal-title":"Psychoneuro-Endocrinology"},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"27","DOI":"10.1097\/PSY.0b013e3181c85712","article-title":"Measures of social position and cortisol secretion in an aging population: findings from the Whitehall II study","volume":"72","author":"Kumari","year":"2010","journal-title":"Psychosom. Med."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"812","DOI":"10.1081\/CNV-100107743","article-title":"Cognitive effects of standard-dose chemotherapy in patients with cancer","volume":"19","author":"Ahles","year":"2008","journal-title":"Cancer Invest."},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"52","DOI":"10.3816\/SCT.2004.n.023","article-title":"Weekly administration of epoietin alfa improves cognition and quality of life in patients with breast cancer receiving chemotherapy","volume":"2","author":"Chang","year":"2004","journal-title":"Support Canc. Ther."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpainsymman.2003.11.002","article-title":"Relationship of hemoglobin levels to fatigue and cognitive functioning among cancer patients receiving chemotherapy","volume":"28","author":"Jacobsen","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Pain Symptom. Manage."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"175","DOI":"10.1016\/j.critrevonc.2005.06.001","article-title":"Evaluation of the effectiveness of treatment with erythropoietin on anemia, cognitive functioning, and functions studied by comprehensive geriatric assessment in elderly cancer patients with anemia related to cancer chemotherapy","volume":"57","author":"Massa","year":"2006","journal-title":"Crit. Rev. Oncol. Hematol."},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"439","DOI":"10.3816\/CBC.2005.n.002","article-title":"Feasibility of quantifying the effects of epoetin alfa therapy on cognitive function in women with breast cancer undergoing adjuvant or neoadjuvant chemotherapy","volume":"5","author":"Vukelja","year":"2005","journal-title":"Clin. Breast Cancer"},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S116","DOI":"10.3816\/CBC.2002.s.022","article-title":"Effects of epoetin alfa on cognitive function, mood, asthenia, and quality of life in women with breast cancer undergoing adjuvant chemotherapy","volume":"3","year":"2002","journal-title":"Clin. Breast Cancer"},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"484","DOI":"10.1054\/brst.2001.0311","article-title":"The effects of oestrogens and anti-oestrogens on cognition","volume":"10","author":"Shilling","year":"2001","journal-title":"Breast"},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"407","DOI":"10.1016\/S0885-3924(01)00268-8","article-title":"Cognitive function and reproductive hormones in adjuvant therapy for breast cancer: A critical review","volume":"21","author":"Bender","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Pain Symptom. Manage."},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11S","DOI":"10.1016\/S0002-9343(97)00261-1","article-title":"Estrogen, cognition, and a woman's risk of Alzheimer's disease","volume":"103","author":"Henderson","year":"1997","journal-title":"Amer. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_101","first-page":"279","article-title":"Estrogen actions in the central nervous system","volume":"20","author":"McEwen","year":"1999","journal-title":"Endocrine Rev."},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"133","DOI":"10.1210\/er.2001-0016","article-title":"Estrogen and Cognitive Functioning in Women","volume":"24","author":"Sherwin","year":"2003","journal-title":"Endocr Rev."},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"250","DOI":"10.1055\/s-0029-1216278","article-title":"Mechanisms of action of estrogen in the brain: insights from human neuroimaging and psychopharmacologic studies","volume":"27","author":"Maki","year":"2009","journal-title":"Semin. Reprod. Med."},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S95","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neurobiolaging.2006.09.001","article-title":"Hippocampal volumes are larger in postmenopausal women using estrogen therapy compared to past users, never users and men: a possible window of opportunity effect","volume":"29","author":"Lord","year":"2008","journal-title":"Neurobiol. Aging"},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"165","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1006426132338","article-title":"Preliminary assessment of cognitive function in breast cancer patients treated with tamoxifen","volume":"64","author":"Clark","year":"2000","journal-title":"Breast Cancer Res. Treat."},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"275","DOI":"10.1007\/s11764-008-0070-1","article-title":"Cognitive effects of Tamoxifen in pre-menopausal women with breast cancer compared to healthy controls","volume":"2","author":"Palmer","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Cancer Survivorship"},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2431","DOI":"10.1002\/cncr.23853","article-title":"Short-term effects of treatment induced hormonal changes on cognitive function in breast cancer patients: Results of a multicenter, prospective, longitudinal study","volume":"113","author":"Hermelink","year":"2008","journal-title":"Cancer"},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"953","DOI":"10.1016\/S1470-2045(08)70207-9","article-title":"Effects of anastrozole on cognitive performance in postmenopausal women: A randomised, double-blind chemoprevention trial (IBIS II)","volume":"9","author":"Jenkins","year":"2008","journal-title":"Lancet Oncol."},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"173","DOI":"10.1111\/j.0963-7214.2004.00301.x","article-title":"Neurobiological consequences of long-term Estrogen Therapy","volume":"13","author":"Marriott","year":"2004","journal-title":"Curr. Dir. Psychol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1749-6632.2010.05529.x","article-title":"Estrogen and the aging brain: an elixir for the weary cortical network","volume":"1204","author":"Dumitriu","year":"2010","journal-title":"Ann. N Y Acad. Sci."},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109","DOI":"10.1016\/S0531-5565(02)00166-3","article-title":"The neuroprotective effects of estrogen on the aging brain","volume":"38","author":"Norbury","year":"2008","journal-title":"Exp. Gerontol."},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"95","DOI":"10.1016\/S0378-5122(00)00195-X","article-title":"Estrogen and the aging brain","volume":"38","author":"Silvia","year":"2001","journal-title":"Maturitas"},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1389","DOI":"10.1007\/s11064-006-9191-y","article-title":"Aging of brain: Role of estrogen","volume":"31","author":"Thakur","year":"2006","journal-title":"Neurochemical Res."},{"key":"ref_114","first-page":"387","article-title":"Effects of hormonal therapy on cognitive functioning in breast cancer patients: A review of the literature","volume":"59","author":"Schilder","year":"2007","journal-title":"Minerva Ginecol."},{"key":"ref_115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"125","DOI":"10.1016\/S0889-1591(02)00079-X","article-title":"Immune-to-central nervous system communication and its role in modulating pain and cognition: Implications for cancer and cancer treatment","volume":"17","author":"Maier","year":"2003","journal-title":"Brain Behav. Immun."},{"key":"ref_116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9070","DOI":"10.1200\/jco.2007.25.18_suppl.9070","article-title":"Cytokine levels in patients (pts) with colorectal cancer and breast cancer and their relationship to fatigue and cognitive function","volume":"25","author":"Vardy","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Clin. Oncol."},{"key":"ref_117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kesler, S., Janelsins, M., Kooyakkattu, D., Palesh, O., Mustian, K., Morrow, G, and Dhabhar, F.S. (2012). Reduced hippocampal volume and verbal memory performance associated with interleukin-6 and tumor necrosis factor-alpha levels in chemotherapy-treated breast cancer survivors. Brain Behav. Immun., 1016\/j.bbi.2012.05.017.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbi.2012.05.017"},{"key":"ref_118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"795","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijrobp.2010.06.037","article-title":"One-year longitudinal study of fatigue, cognitive functions, and quality of life after adjuvant radiotherapy for breast cancer","volume":"81","author":"Noal","year":"2011","journal-title":"Int J. Radiat. Oncol. Biol. Phys."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/13\/3\/3169\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T21:45:22Z","timestamp":1760219122000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/13\/3\/3169"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2013,3,6]]},"references-count":118,"journal-issue":{"issue":"3","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2013,3]]}},"alternative-id":["s130303169"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s130303169","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2013,3,6]]}}}