{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,18]],"date-time":"2026-01-18T03:15:11Z","timestamp":1768706111221,"version":"3.49.0"},"reference-count":42,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2013,3,12]],"date-time":"2013-03-12T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1363046400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/3.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>This study investigates how the use of a Hitman ST300 acoustic sensor can help identify the best forest stands to be used as supply sources for the production of Machine Stress-Rated (MSR) lumber. Using two piezoelectric sensors, the ST300 measures the velocity of a mechanical wave induced in a standing tree. Measurements were made on 333 black spruce (Picea mariana (Mill.) BSP) trees from the North Shore region, Quebec (Canada) selected across a range of locations and along a chronosequence of elapsed time since the last fire (TSF). Logs were cut from a subsample of 39 trees, and sawn into 77 pieces of 38 mm \u00d7 89 mm cross-section before undergoing mechanical testing according to ASTM standard D-4761. A linear regression model was developed to predict the static modulus of elasticity of lumber using tree acoustic velocity and stem diameter at 1.3 m above ground level (R2 = 0.41). Results suggest that, at a regional level, 92% of the black spruce trees meet the requirements of MSR grade 1650Fb-1.5E, whilst 64% and 34% meet the 2100Fb-1.8E and 2400Fb-2.0E, respectively. Mature stands with a TSF &lt; 150 years had 11 and 18% more boards in the latter two categories, respectively, and therefore represented the best supply source for MSR lumber.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s130303394","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2013,3,13]],"date-time":"2013-03-13T04:22:17Z","timestamp":1363148537000},"page":"3394-3408","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":38,"title":["Using a Standing-Tree Acoustic Tool to Identify Forest Stands for the Production of Mechanically-Graded Lumber"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"given":"Normand","family":"Paradis","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre de recherche sur le bois, Universit\u00e9 Laval, 2425 rue de la Terrasse, Qu\u00e9bec, QC G1V 0A6, Canada"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"David","family":"Auty","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre de recherche sur le bois, Universit\u00e9 Laval, 2425 rue de la Terrasse, Qu\u00e9bec, QC G1V 0A6, Canada"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Peter","family":"Carter","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Fibre-Gen, Unit 5 Amuri Park, 404 Barbadoes Street, Christchurch 8013, New Zealand"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Alexis","family":"Achim","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre de recherche sur le bois, Universit\u00e9 Laval, 2425 rue de la Terrasse, Qu\u00e9bec, QC G1V 0A6, Canada"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2013,3,12]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Spelter, H., McKeever, D., and Toth, D. (2009). Profile 2009: Softwood Sawmills in the United States and Canada, Forest Products Laboratory, US Department of Agriculture (USDA).","DOI":"10.2737\/FPL-RP-659"},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"(2011). Le Secteur Forestier Canadien: Un Avenir Fond\u00e9 sur L'innovation, Biblioth\u00e8que du Parlement."},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"(2004). Les R\u00e9alit\u00e9s de l'Industrie du bois de Sciage sur la C\u00f4te-Nord, Commission d'\u00c9tude sur la Gestion de la For\u00eat Publique Qu\u00e9b\u00e9coise."},{"key":"ref_4","unstructured":"(2012). Panorama des R\u00e9gions du Qu\u00e9bec: \u00c9dition 2012, Institut de la statistique du Qu\u00e9bec."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"65","DOI":"10.1016\/j.forpol.2008.09.003","article-title":"Process-based analysis of added value in forest product industries","volume":"11","author":"Sathre","year":"2009","journal-title":"For. Policy Econ."},{"key":"ref_6","unstructured":"(2000). Lumber and Value-Added Wood Products: Special Report, Forintek Canada Corp."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2189","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foreco.2009.03.001","article-title":"Predicting the long-term yield trajectory of black spruce stands using time since fire","volume":"257","author":"Garet","year":"2009","journal-title":"For. Ecol. Manag."},{"key":"ref_8","unstructured":"Jessome, A.P. (2000). R\u00e9sistance et Propri\u00e9t\u00e9s Connexes des Bois Indig\u00e8nes au Canada, Forintek Canada Corp."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"609","DOI":"10.5558\/tfc85609-4","article-title":"Lumber grade yield, and value of plantation-grown black spruce from 3 stands in northwestern Ontario","volume":"85","author":"Reid","year":"2009","journal-title":"For. Chron."},{"key":"ref_10","first-page":"460","article-title":"Impact of initial spacing on plantation black spruce lumber grade yield, bending properties, and MSR yield","volume":"34","author":"Zhang","year":"2002","journal-title":"Wood Fiber Sci."},{"key":"ref_11","unstructured":"Barnette, J.R., and Jeronimidis, G. (2003). Wood Quality and its Biological Basis, Blackwell Publishing, CRC Press."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2040","DOI":"10.1139\/x11-122","article-title":"Ranking of four contributions to error in stand-level Douglas-fir log supply and value recovery estimation","volume":"41","author":"Murphy","year":"2011","journal-title":"Can. J. For. Res."},{"key":"ref_13","first-page":"6","article-title":"Acoustic assessment of wood quality of raw forest materials\u2014A path to increased profitability","volume":"57","author":"Wang","year":"2007","journal-title":"For. Prod. J."},{"key":"ref_14","unstructured":"Carter, P., Briggs, D., Ross, R.J., and Wang, X. (2005). Acoustic Testing to Enhance Western Forest Values and Meet Customer Wood Quality Needs, Department of Agriculture Forest Service, US Department of Agriculture (USDA)."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"217","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foreco.2006.12.009","article-title":"Assessing corewood acoustic velocity and modulus of elasticity with two impact based instruments in 11-year-old trees from a clonal-spacing experiment of Pinus radiata D.Don","volume":"239","author":"Lasserre","year":"2007","journal-title":"For. Ecol. Manag."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"475","DOI":"10.1093\/forestry\/cpn015","article-title":"The relationship between standing tree acoustic assessment and timber quality in Scots pine and the pratical implications for assessing timber quality from naturally regenerated stands","volume":"13","author":"Auty","year":"2008","journal-title":"Forestry"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1421","DOI":"10.1139\/X09-062","article-title":"Relationships between acoustic variables and different measures of stiffness in standing Pinus taeda trees","volume":"39","author":"Mora","year":"2009","journal-title":"Can. J. For. Res."},{"key":"ref_18","first-page":"28","article-title":"Acoustic evaluation of wood quality in standing trees\u2014Part I. Acoustic wave behavior","volume":"39","author":"Wang","year":"2007","journal-title":"Wood Fiber Sci."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5716","DOI":"10.3390\/s110605716","article-title":"Using acoustic sensors to improve the efficiency of the forest value chain in Canada: A case study with laminated veneer lumber","volume":"11","author":"Achim","year":"2011","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_20","first-page":"265","article-title":"Using operational research for supply chain planning in the forest products industry","volume":"46","author":"Ronnqvist","year":"2008","journal-title":"INFOR : Information Systems and Operational Research"},{"key":"ref_21","unstructured":"Huang, C.L. (2005). System and Method for Measuring Stiffness in Standing Trees. (U.S. Patent 6,871,545B2)."},{"key":"ref_22","unstructured":"Gao, S., Xiping, W., Wang, L., and Allison, R.B. Modeling Temperature and Moisture State Effects on Acoustic Velocity in Wood. 14\u2013 16 September 2011."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1621","DOI":"10.1139\/X07-201","article-title":"Fire return intervals and tree species succession in the north shore region of eastern Qu\u00e9bec","volume":"38","author":"Bouchard","year":"2008","journal-title":"Can. J. For. Res."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"202","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecolind.2012.03.032","article-title":"Forest age class structures as indicators of sustainability in boreal forest: Are we measuring them correctly?","volume":"23","author":"Garet","year":"2012","journal-title":"Ecol. Indic."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"511","DOI":"10.5558\/tfc86511-4","article-title":"Linking stand attributes to cartographic information for ecosystem management purposes in the boreal forest of eastern Qu\u00e9bec","volume":"86","author":"Bouchand","year":"2010","journal-title":"For. Chron."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"603","DOI":"10.1007\/s13595-011-0178-8","article-title":"Lumber recovery and value of dead and sound black spruce trees grown in the North Shore region of Qu\u00e9bec","volume":"69","author":"Barrette","year":"2012","journal-title":"Ann. For. Sci."},{"key":"ref_27","first-page":"330","article-title":"Impact of spacings on sapwood and heartwood thickness in Picea mariana (Mill.) B.S.P. and Picea glauca (Moench.) VOSS","volume":"24","author":"Yang","year":"1992","journal-title":"Wood Fiber Sci."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1632","DOI":"10.1139\/x91-226","article-title":"Aire minimum d'\u00e9chantillonnnage ou nombre de points de prisme n\u00e9cessaires pour \u00e9tablir la structure d'un peuplement in\u00e9quienne","volume":"21","author":"Grenier","year":"1991","journal-title":"Can. J. For. Res."},{"key":"ref_29","first-page":"208","article-title":"A comparison of prism plots and modified point-distance sampling to calculate tree stem density and basal area","volume":"23","author":"Thompson","year":"2006","journal-title":"North. J. Appl. For."},{"key":"ref_30","unstructured":"(2011). ASTM D4761-11, Standard Test Methods for Mechanical Properties of Lumber and Wood-Base Structural Material, American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) International."},{"key":"ref_31","unstructured":"(2007). ASTM D1990-07, Standard Practice for Establishing Lumber from In-Grade Tests pf Full-Size Specimens, American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) International."},{"key":"ref_32","unstructured":"(2003). NLGA SPS 2-2003 Special Products Standard for Machine Graded Lumber, National Lumber Grades Authority."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103","DOI":"10.1111\/j.2041-210X.2010.00012.x","article-title":"Simple means to improve the interpretability of regression coefficients","volume":"1","author":"Schielzeth","year":"2010","journal-title":"Methods Ecol. Evol."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"648","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foreco.2007.01.077","article-title":"Modeling lumber bending stiffness and strength in natural black spruce stands using stand and tree caracteristics","volume":"242","author":"Liu","year":"2007","journal-title":"For. Ecol. Manag."},{"key":"ref_35","first-page":"522","article-title":"Nondestructive evaluation of standing trees with a stress wave method","volume":"33","author":"Wang","year":"2001","journal-title":"Wood Fiber Sci."},{"key":"ref_36","unstructured":"Eckard, J.T. (2007). Rapid Screening for Solid Wood Quality Traits in Clones of Loblolly Pine (Pinus taeda L.) by Indirect Measuremants. [M.Sc. Thesis, North Carolina State University]."},{"key":"ref_37","unstructured":"Kettunen, P.O. (2006). Wood Structure and Properties, Trans. Tech. Publications Ltd."},{"key":"ref_38","first-page":"445","article-title":"Transition from juvenile to mature wood in black spruce (Picea mariana (MILL. B.S.P.)","volume":"37","author":"Koubaa","year":"2005","journal-title":"Wood Fiber Sci."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"743","DOI":"10.1515\/hf.2011.059","article-title":"Experimental investigation of stress wave propagation in standing trees","volume":"65","author":"Zhang","year":"2011","journal-title":"Holzforschung"},{"key":"ref_40","first-page":"266","article-title":"Improving structural lumber quality in a sample of Picea mariana logs sawn according to the knots","volume":"34","author":"Lemieux","year":"2002","journal-title":"Wood Fiber Sci."},{"key":"ref_41","first-page":"200","article-title":"Wood degradation after windthrow in a Northern environment","volume":"60","author":"Ruel","year":"2010","journal-title":"For. Prod. J."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Barette, J., Pothier, D., and Ward, C. (2013). Temporal changes in stem decay and dead and sound wood volumes in the northeastern Canadian boreal forest. Can. J. For. Res., in press.","DOI":"10.1139\/cjfr-2012-0270"}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/13\/3\/3394\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T21:45:28Z","timestamp":1760219128000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/13\/3\/3394"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2013,3,12]]},"references-count":42,"journal-issue":{"issue":"3","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2013,3]]}},"alternative-id":["s130303394"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s130303394","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2013,3,12]]}}}