{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,12]],"date-time":"2025-10-12T04:32:47Z","timestamp":1760243567313,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":13,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"9","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2013,9,18]],"date-time":"2013-09-18T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1379462400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/3.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>This paper presents a CMOS temperature sensor based on the thermal dependencies of the leakage currents targeting the 65 nm node. To compensate for the effect of process fluctuations, the proposed sensor realizes the ratio of two measures of the time it takes a capacitor to discharge through a transistor in the subthreshold regime. Furthermore, a novel charging mechanism for the capacitor is proposed to further increase the robustness against fabrication variability. The sensor, including digitization and interfacing, occupies 0.0016 mm2 and has an energy consumption of 47.7\u2013633 pJ per sample. The resolution of the sensor is 0.28 \u00b0C, and the 3\u03c3 inaccuracy over the range 40\u2013110 \u00b0C is 1.17 \u00b0C.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s130912648","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2013,9,18]],"date-time":"2013-09-18T11:52:17Z","timestamp":1379505137000},"page":"12648-12662","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":12,"title":["A 0.0016 mm2 0.64 nJ Leakage-Based CMOS Temperature Sensor"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"given":"Pablo","family":"Ituero","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Departamento de Ingenier\u00eda Electr\u00f3nica, ETSI Telecomunicaci\u00f3n, Universidad Polit\u00e9cnica de Madrid, Avenida Complutense 30, 28040 Madrid, Spain"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3833-524X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Marisa","family":"L\u00f3pez-Vallejo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Departamento de Ingenier\u00eda Electr\u00f3nica, ETSI Telecomunicaci\u00f3n, Universidad Polit\u00e9cnica de Madrid, Avenida Complutense 30, 28040 Madrid, Spain"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Carlos","family":"L\u00f3pez-Barrio","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Departamento de Ingenier\u00eda Electr\u00f3nica, ETSI Telecomunicaci\u00f3n, Universidad Polit\u00e9cnica de Madrid, Avenida Complutense 30, 28040 Madrid, Spain"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2013,9,18]]},"reference":[{"doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kim, K., Lee, H., Jung, S., and Kim, C. (2009, January 13\u201316). A 366 kS\/s 400 uW 0.0013 mm2Frequency-to-Digital Converter Based CMOS Temperature Sensor Utilizing Multiphase Clock. San Jose, CA, USA.","key":"ref_1","DOI":"10.1109\/CICC.2009.5280879"},{"key":"ref_2","first-page":"891","article-title":"A 405-nW CMOS temperature sensor based on linear MOS operation","volume":"56","author":"Law","year":"2009","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Circuits Syst. II: Express Briefs"},{"unstructured":"Luria, K., and Shor, J. (June, January 3). Miniaturized CMOS Thermal Sensor Array for Temperature Gradient Measurement in Microprocessors. Paris, France.","key":"ref_3"},{"doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Datta, B., and Burleson, W. (2007, January 15\u201317). Low Power On-Chip Thermal Sensors Based on Wires. Atlanta, GA, USA.","key":"ref_4","DOI":"10.1109\/VLSISOC.2007.4402508"},{"unstructured":"Kim, J., Trzcinski, R., Plouchart, J., and Kim, M. (2007). Adjustable On-Chip Sub-Capacitor Design. (WO\/2007\/134904).","key":"ref_5"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2036","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2008.2007692","article-title":"A nanowatt smart temperature sensor for dynamic thermal management","volume":"8","author":"Ituero","year":"2008","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_7","first-page":"568","article-title":"An on-chip temperature sensor with a self-discharging diode in 32-nm SOI CMOS","volume":"59","author":"Chowdhury","year":"2012","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Circuits Syst. II: Express Briefs"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"442","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2012.2227713","article-title":"Ratio-based temperature-sensing technique hardened against nanometer process variations","volume":"13","author":"Ituero","year":"2013","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"unstructured":"Morshed, T., Yang, W., Dunga, M., Xi, X., He, J., Liu, W., Kanyu, M., Jin, X., Ou, J., and Chan, M. (2009). BSIM4. 6.4 MOSFET Model\u2014User's Manual, University of California.","key":"ref_9"},{"doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Saneyoshi, E., Nose, K., Kajita, M., and Mizuno, M. (2008, January 18\u201320). A 1.1 V 35 \u03bcm \u00d7 35 \u03bcm Thermal Sensor with Supply Voltage Sensitivity of 2 C\/10%-Supply for Thermal Management on the SX-9 Supercomputer. Honolulu, HI, USA.","key":"ref_10","DOI":"10.1109\/VLSIC.2008.4585987"},{"unstructured":"Makinwa, K. Temperature Sensor Performance Survey. Available online: http:\/\/ei.ewi.tudelft.nl\/docs\/TSensor survey.xls.","key":"ref_11"},{"unstructured":"Wu, C.K., Chan, W.S., and Lin, T.H. (2011, January 15\u201317). A 80 kS\/s 36 \u03bc W Resistor-Based Temperature Sensor Using BGR-Free SAR ADC with a Unevenly-Weighted Resistor String in 0.18 \u03bcm CMOS. Honolulu, HI, USA.","key":"ref_12"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2241","DOI":"10.1109\/TCSI.2013.2246254","article-title":"A 0.008 mm2 500 \u03bcW 469 kS\/s frequency-to-digital converter based CMOS temperature sensor with process variation compensation","volume":"60","author":"Hwang","year":"2013","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Circuits Syst. I: Regul. 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