{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,13]],"date-time":"2026-06-13T11:40:34Z","timestamp":1781350834371,"version":"3.54.1"},"reference-count":54,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2014,2,12]],"date-time":"2014-02-12T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1392163200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/3.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>This paper presents a method for using a dual roadside seismic sensor to detect moving vehicles on roadway by installing them on a road shoulder. Seismic signals are split into fixed time intervals in recording. In each interval, the time delay of arrival (TDOA) is estimated using a generalized cross-correlation approach with phase transform (GCC-PHAT). Various kinds of vehicle characterization information, including vehicle speed, axle spacing, detection of both vehicle axles and moving direction, can also be extracted from the collected seismic signals as demonstrated in this paper. The error of both vehicle speed and axle spacing detected by this approach has been shown to be less than 20% through the field tests conducted on an urban street in Seattle. Compared to most existing sensors, this new design of dual seismic sensor is cost effective, easy to install, and effective in gathering information for various traffic management applications.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s140202892","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2014,2,12]],"date-time":"2014-02-12T11:35:37Z","timestamp":1392204937000},"page":"2892-2910","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":12,"title":["Dual Roadside Seismic Sensor for Moving Road Vehicle Detection and Characterization"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"given":"Hua","family":"Wang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Transportation Science and Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, No. 73 Huanghe Rd., NanGang Dist., Harbin 150090, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Wei","family":"Quan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Transportation Science and Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, No. 73 Huanghe Rd., NanGang Dist., Harbin 150090, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yinhai","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, University of Washington, Box 352700, Seattle, WA 98195-2700, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Gregory","family":"Miller","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, University of Washington, Box 352700, Seattle, WA 98195-2700, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2014,2,12]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Klein, L.A., Gibson, D., and Mills, M.K. (2006). Traffic Detector Handbook, Federal Highway Administration, US Department of Transportation. [3rd ed.]. FHWA-HRT-06-108 and FHWA-HRT-06-139."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"Mimbela, L.E.Y., and Klein, L.A. (2007). A Summary of Vehicle Detection and Surveillance Technologies used in Intelligent Transportation System, New Mexico State University. Technical Report."},{"key":"ref_3","first-page":"32","article-title":"A new look at sensors","volume":"71","author":"Gibson","year":"2007","journal-title":"Public Roads"},{"key":"ref_4","first-page":"434","article-title":"Wavelet-based ground vehicle recognition using acoustic signals","volume":"2762","author":"Choe","year":"1996","journal-title":"Wavelet Appl."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Braunling, R., Jensen, R., and Gallo, M. (1997, January 22\u201323). Acoustic Target Detection Tracking Classification, and Location in a Multiple Target Environment. Orlando, FL, USA.","DOI":"10.1117\/12.280662"},{"key":"ref_6","unstructured":"Maciejewski, H., Mazurkiewicz, J., Skowron, K., and Walkowiak, T. Neural Networks for Vehicle Recognition."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mayoral, A., McCool, I., and Gramann, R. (2002, January 1). Detection and Classification of Time-Critical Targets Using Seismic Sensors. Orlando, FL, USA.","DOI":"10.1117\/12.448388"},{"key":"ref_8","unstructured":"Gramann, R.A., Bennett, M.B., and OBrien, T.D. (1998, January 3\u20135). Vehicle and Personnel Detection Using Seismic Sensors. Boston, MA, USA."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"189","DOI":"10.1016\/j.measurement.2004.11.012","article-title":"Recognition of moving ground targets by measuring and processing seismic signal","volume":"37","author":"Lan","year":"2005","journal-title":"Measurement"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tian, Y., Qi, H., and Wang, X. (2002, January 13\u201317). Target Detection and Classification Using Seismic Signal Processing in Unattended Ground Sensor Systems. Orlando, FL, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICASSP.2002.5745620"},{"key":"ref_11","unstructured":"Stotts, L. (, January July). Unattended Ground Sensor Related Technologies: An Army Perspective."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lan, J., Nahavandi, S., and Lan, T. (2004, January 26\u201327). Application of Micro-Accelerometer in Target Recognition. San Jose, CA, USA.","DOI":"10.1117\/12.523916"},{"key":"ref_13","unstructured":"Porto, V., Fogel, L., and Fogel, D. (2004, January 21\u201322). Using evolutionary computation for seismic signal detection: a homeland security application. Venice, Italy."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"826","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpdc.2004.03.020","article-title":"Vehicle classification in distributed sensor networks","volume":"64","author":"Duarte","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Parallel Distrib. Comput."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1709","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2011.2177257","article-title":"Target detection and classification using seismic and PIR sensors","volume":"12","author":"Jin","year":"2012","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"713","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jsv.2003.05.002","article-title":"Acoustic and seismic signals of heavy military vehicles for co-operative verification","volume":"273","author":"Altmann","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Sound Vib."},{"key":"ref_17","unstructured":"Richman, M., Deadrick, D., Nation, R., and Whitney, S. (2001, January 16). Personnel Tracking Using Seismic Sensors. Orlando, FL, USA."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8534","DOI":"10.3390\/s130708534","article-title":"Seismic target classification using a wavelet packet manifold in unattended ground sensors systems","volume":"13","author":"Huang","year":"2013","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.1109\/79.985674","article-title":"Detection, classification, and tracking of targets","volume":"19","author":"Li","year":"2002","journal-title":"IEEE Signal Process. Mag."},{"key":"ref_20","unstructured":"Succi, G., Prado, G., Gampert, R., Pedersen, T., and Dhaliwal, H. (2000, January 24). Problems in Seismic Detection and Tracking. Orlando, FL, USA."},{"key":"ref_21","unstructured":"Evans, N. (2010). Automated Vehicle Detection and Classification Using Acoustic and Seismic Signals. [Ph.D. Thesis, University of York]."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jsv.2006.08.040","article-title":"Genetic algorithm-based optimum vehicle suspension design using minimum dynamic pavement load as a design criterion","volume":"301","author":"Sun","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Sound Vib."},{"key":"ref_23","first-page":"1","article-title":"Traffic vibrations in buildings","volume":"39","author":"Hunaidi","year":"2000","journal-title":"Constr. Technol. Update"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1913","DOI":"10.1109\/TASL.2010.2040525","article-title":"A two microphone-based approach for source localization of multiple speech sources","volume":"18","author":"Zhang","year":"2010","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Audio Speech Lang. Process."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Haykin, S. (1985). Array Signal Processing, Prentice Hall.","DOI":"10.1109\/MASSP.1985.1163737"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2","DOI":"10.1109\/7.570703","article-title":"Target localization from bearings-only observations","volume":"3","author":"Taff","year":"1997","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Aerosp. Electron. Syst."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"892","DOI":"10.1109\/7.784059","article-title":"Optimization of observer trajectories for bearings-only target localization optimization of observer trajectories for bearings-only target localization","volume":"35","author":"Oshman","year":"1999","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Aerosp. Electron. Syst."},{"key":"ref_28","unstructured":"Kaplan, L.M., Le, Q., and Molnar, N. (2001, January 7\u201311). Maximum Likelihood Methods for Bearings-Only Target Localization. Salt Lake City, UT, USA."},{"key":"ref_29","unstructured":"Carter, C. (1993). Coherence and Time Delay Estimation : An Applied Tutorial for Research, Development, Test, and Evaluation Engineers, IEEE Press."},{"key":"ref_30","unstructured":"Brandstein, M., and Silverman, H. (1996, January 7\u201310). A Localization-Error-Based Method for Microphone-Array Design. Atlanta, GA, USA."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"45","DOI":"10.1109\/89.554268","article-title":"A closed-form location estimator for use with room environment microphone arrays","volume":"5","author":"Brandstein","year":"2002","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Speech Audio Process."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1555","DOI":"10.1109\/49.730461","article-title":"Blind beamforming on a randomly distributed sensor array system","volume":"16","author":"Yao","year":"1998","journal-title":"IEEE J. Sel. Areas Commun."},{"key":"ref_33","unstructured":"Reed, C., Hudson, R., and Yao, K. (1999, January 15\u201319). Direct Joint Source Localization and Propagation Speed Estimation. Phoenix, AZ, USA."},{"key":"ref_34","unstructured":"Tolstory, A. (1993). Matched-Field Processing for Underwater Acoustics, World Scientific."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, C., Zhang, Z., and Florencio, D. (2007, January 15\u201320). Maximum Likelihood Sound Source Localization for Multiple Directional Microphones. Honolulu, HI, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICASSP.2007.366632"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"44","DOI":"10.1109\/TSP.2004.838930","article-title":"Maximum likelihood multiple-source localization using acoustic energy measurements with wireless sensor networks","volume":"53","author":"Sheng","year":"2005","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Signal Process."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"525","DOI":"10.1109\/78.193195","article-title":"Discrete time techniques for time delay estimation","volume":"41","author":"Jacovitti","year":"1993","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Signal Process."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"561","DOI":"10.1109\/TASSP.1981.1163614","article-title":"Time delay estimation using the LMS adaptive filter\u2014Static behavior","volume":"ASSP-29","author":"Reed","year":"1981","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Acoust. Speech Signal Process."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"384","DOI":"10.1121\/1.428310","article-title":"Adaptive eigenvalue decomposition algorithm for passive acoustic source localization","volume":"107","author":"Benesty","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Acoust. Soc. Am."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Huang, Y., Benesty, J., and Elko, G. (1999, January 15\u201319). Adaptive Eigenvalue Decomposition Algorithm for Real Time Acoustic Source Localization System. Phoenix, AZ, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICASSP.1999.759826"},{"key":"ref_41","unstructured":"Trees, H.L.V. (2002). Optimum Array Processing (Detection, Estimation, and Modulation Theory, Part IV), Wiley-Interscience."},{"key":"ref_42","unstructured":"Huang, Y.A., and Benesty, J. (2003). Adaptive Signal Processing, Springer. Chapter 8."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"217","DOI":"10.1109\/TASSP.1978.1163078","article-title":"The least squares estimation of time delay and its use in signal detection","volume":"26","author":"Chan","year":"2003","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Acoust. Speech Signal Process."},{"key":"ref_44","unstructured":"Brandstein, M., and Silverman, H. (1997, January 21\u201324). A Robust Method for Speech Signal Time-Delay Estimation in Reverberant Rooms. Munich, Germany."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1109\/TASSP.1986.1164789","article-title":"Time delay estimation by combining efficient algorithms and generalized cross-correlation methods","volume":"ASSP-34","author":"Hertz","year":"1986","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Acoust. Speech Signal Process."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"320","DOI":"10.1109\/TASSP.1976.1162830","article-title":"The generalized correlation method for estimation of time delay","volume":"24","author":"Knapp","year":"1976","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Acoust. Speech Signal Process."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1830","DOI":"10.1109\/TSP.2004.828896","article-title":"Blind separation of speech mixtures via time-frequency masking","volume":"52","author":"Yilmaz","year":"2004","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Signal Process."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"276","DOI":"10.1109\/TAP.1986.1143830","article-title":"Multiple emitter location and signal parameter estimation","volume":"34","author":"Schmidt","year":"1986","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Antennas Propag."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Loesch, B., and Yang, B. (2010, January 27\u201330). Blind Source Separation Based on Time-Frequency Sparseness in the Presence of Spatial Aliasing. St. Malo, France.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-642-15995-4_1"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1950","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sigpro.2011.09.032","article-title":"Multi-source TDOA estimation in reverberant audio using angular spectra and clustering","volume":"92","author":"Blandin","year":"2012","journal-title":"Signal Processing"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Vincent, E., Arberet, S., and Gribonval, R. (2009, January 15\u201318). Underdetermined Instantaneous Audio Source Separation via Local Gaussian Modeling. Paraty, Brazil.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-642-00599-2_97"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.1002\/ecj.10333","article-title":"Moving sound source localization based on sequential subspace estimation in actual room environments","volume":"94","author":"Tsuji","year":"2011","journal-title":"Electron. Commun. Jpn."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Irvin, J.A., and Quickenden, T.I. (1983). Linear least squares treatment when there are errors in both x and y. J. Chem. Educ., 60.","DOI":"10.1021\/ed060p711"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Song, F, Huang, G.L., Kim, J.H., and Haran, S. (2008). On the study of surface wave propagation in concrete structures using a piezoelectric actuators\/sensors system. Smart Mater. Struct., 17.","DOI":"10.1117\/12.786600"}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/14\/2\/2892\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T21:08:06Z","timestamp":1760216886000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/14\/2\/2892"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2014,2,12]]},"references-count":54,"journal-issue":{"issue":"2","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2014,2]]}},"alternative-id":["s140202892"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s140202892","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2014,2,12]]}}}