{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,20]],"date-time":"2026-08-20T15:11:49Z","timestamp":1787238709159,"version":"build-2736575974"},"reference-count":11,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"6","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2014,6,19]],"date-time":"2014-06-19T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1403136000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/3.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Active optical sensing (LIDAR and light curtain transmission) devices mounted on a mobile platform can correctly detect, localize, and classify trees. To conduct an evaluation and comparison of the different sensors, an optical encoder wheel was used for vehicle odometry and provided a measurement of the linear displacement of the prototype vehicle along a row of tree seedlings as a reference for each recorded sensor measurement. The field trials were conducted in a juvenile tree nursery with one-year-old grafted almond trees at Sierra Gold Nurseries, Yuba City, CA, United States. Through these tests and subsequent data processing, each sensor was individually evaluated to characterize their reliability, as well as their advantages and disadvantages for the proposed task. Test results indicated that 95.7% and 99.48% of the trees were successfully detected with the LIDAR and light curtain sensors, respectively. LIDAR correctly classified, between alive or dead tree states at a 93.75% success rate compared to 94.16% for the light curtain sensor. These results can help system designers select the most reliable sensor for the accurate detection and localization of each tree in a nursery, which might allow labor-intensive tasks, such as weeding, to be automated without damaging crops.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s140610783","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2014,6,19]],"date-time":"2014-06-19T11:22:58Z","timestamp":1403176978000},"page":"10783-10803","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":24,"title":["Active Optical Sensors for Tree Stem Detection and Classification in Nurseries"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7880-6499","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Miguel","family":"Garrido","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratorio de Propiedades F\u00edsicas (LPF)-TAGRALIA, Technical University of Madrid,  Madrid 28040, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Manuel","family":"Perez-Ruiz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Aerospace Engineering and Fluids Mechanics Department, University of Seville,  Ctra. Sevilla-Utrera km 1, 41013 Seville, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4473-3209","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Constantino","family":"Valero","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratorio de Propiedades F\u00edsicas (LPF)-TAGRALIA, Technical University of Madrid,  Madrid 28040, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Chris","family":"Gliever","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Plant Sciences and Biological and Agricultural Engineering, Sensor and Instrumentation Lab, University of California, Davis, One Shields Ave, Davis, CA 95616, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Bradley","family":"Hanson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Plant Sciences and Biological and Agricultural Engineering, Sensor and Instrumentation Lab, University of California, Davis, One Shields Ave, Davis, CA 95616, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"David","family":"Slaughter","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Plant Sciences and Biological and Agricultural Engineering, Sensor and Instrumentation Lab, University of California, Davis, One Shields Ave, Davis, CA 95616, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2014,6,19]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Resource Book on Horticulture Nursery Management. Yashwantrao Chavan Maharashtra Open University. Developed Under National Agricultural Innovation Project, Indian Council of Agricultural Research, New Delhi 110012. Available online: http:\/\/agropedialabs.iitk.ac.in\/agrilore\/sites\/default\/files\/HNM-book.pdf."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"877","DOI":"10.13031\/2013.13583","article-title":"Optoelectronic system for counting and sizing field-grown deciduous trees","volume":"46","author":"Delwiche","year":"2003","journal-title":"Trans. ASAE"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"912","DOI":"10.13031\/2013.30249","article-title":"Photoelectric transducer for detecting seedlings","volume":"29","author":"Maw","year":"1986","journal-title":"Trans. ASAE"},{"key":"ref_4","unstructured":"Hamner, B., Singh, S., and Bergerman, M. (2010, January 20\u201323). Improving Orchard Efficiency with Autonomous Utility Vehicles. PA, USA."},{"key":"ref_5","unstructured":"Kranzler, G.A. (1988). 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Optical sensors for tree stem detection in nurseries. Madrid, Spain."},{"key":"ref_10","unstructured":"Sotoodeh, S. (2006, January 25\u201327). IAPRS, Dresden, Germany. Part 5."},{"key":"ref_11","unstructured":"SICK AG Waldkirch: Laser Measurement Systems LMS200 to LMS291 - technical description. Available online: http:\/\/sicktoolbox.sourceforge.net\/docs\/sick-lms-technical-description.pdf."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/14\/6\/10783\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T21:12:39Z","timestamp":1760217159000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/14\/6\/10783"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2014,6,19]]},"references-count":11,"journal-issue":{"issue":"6","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2014,6]]}},"alternative-id":["s140610783"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s140610783","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2014,6,19]]}}}