{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,25]],"date-time":"2026-03-25T11:44:32Z","timestamp":1774439072607,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":67,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"8","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2014,8,11]],"date-time":"2014-08-11T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1407715200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/3.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>In recent years, research on Brain-Computer Interface (BCI) technology for healthy users has attracted considerable interest, and BCI games are especially popular. This study reviews the current status of, and describes future directions, in the field of BCI games. To this end, we conducted a literature search and found that BCI control paradigms using electroencephalographic signals (motor imagery, P300, steady state visual evoked potential and passive approach reading mental state) have been the primary focus of research. We also conducted a survey of nearly three hundred participants that included researchers, game developers and users around the world. From this survey, we found that all three groups (researchers, developers and users) agreed on the significant influence and applicability of BCI and BCI games, and they all selected prostheses, rehabilitation and games as the most promising BCI applications. User and developer groups tended to give low priority to passive BCI and the whole head sensor array. Developers gave higher priorities to \u201cthe easiness of playing\u201d and the \u201cdevelopment platform\u201d as important elements for BCI games and the market. Based on our assessment, we discuss the critical point at which BCI games will be able to progress from their current stage to widespread marketing to consumers. In conclusion, we propose three critical elements important for expansion of the BCI game market: standards, gameplay and appropriate integration.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s140814601","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2014,8,11]],"date-time":"2014-08-11T10:14:24Z","timestamp":1407752064000},"page":"14601-14633","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":161,"title":["A Review of Brain-Computer Interface Games and an Opinion Survey from Researchers, Developers and Users"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"given":"Minkyu","family":"Ahn","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Information and Communications, Gwangju Institute of Science and Technology, Gwangju 500712, Korea"}]},{"given":"Mijin","family":"Lee","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Information and Communications, Gwangju Institute of Science and Technology, Gwangju 500712, Korea"}]},{"given":"Jinyoung","family":"Choi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Information and Communications, Gwangju Institute of Science and Technology, Gwangju 500712, Korea"}]},{"given":"Sung","family":"Jun","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Information and Communications, Gwangju Institute of Science and Technology, Gwangju 500712, Korea"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2014,8,11]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nijholt, A., Reidsma, D., and Hondorp, H. (2009). Intelligent Technologies for Interactive Entertainment, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-642-02315-6"},{"key":"ref_2","first-page":"1641","article-title":"Playing Pinball with Non-Invasive BCI","volume":"Volume 21","author":"Tangermann","year":"2009","journal-title":"Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pires, G., Torres, M., Casaleiro, N., Nunes, U., and Castelo-Branco, M. (2011, January 16\u201318). Playing Tetris with non-invasive BCI. Braga, Portugal.","DOI":"10.1109\/SeGAH.2011.6165454"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"176","DOI":"10.1109\/TCIAIG.2013.2253778","article-title":"Experiencing BCI Control in a Popular Computer Game","volume":"5","author":"Gurkok","year":"2013","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Comput. Intell. AI Games"},{"key":"ref_5","first-page":"3156","article-title":"Steady-state VEP-based brain-computer interface control in an immersive 3D gaming environment","volume":"2005","author":"Lalor","year":"2005","journal-title":"EURASIP J. Appl. Signal Process."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.1007\/s12193-010-0046-0","article-title":"Bacteria Hunt: Evaluating multi-paradigm BCI interaction","volume":"4","author":"Thurlings","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Multimodal User Interfaces"},{"key":"ref_7","unstructured":"Congedo, M., Goyat, M., Tarrin, N., Ionescu, G., Varnet, L., Rivet, B., Phlypo, R., Jrad, N., Acquadro, M., and Jutten, C. (, 2011). \u201cBrain Invaders\u201d: A prototype of an open-source P300-based video game working with the OpenViBE platform. Graz, Autriche."},{"key":"ref_8","unstructured":"Kim, W., Ahn, M., Moon, H., Koh, Y., Cho, H., Ahn, S., and Jun, S.C. (2012, January 1\u20133). Application of Concentration or High Attention\u2014Car Racing Biofeedback Game. Jeongseon Korea."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"117","DOI":"10.1109\/TCIAIG.2013.2242072","article-title":"Thinking Penguin: Multimodal Brain-Computer Interface Control of a VR Game","volume":"5","author":"Leeb","year":"2013","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Comput. Intell. AI Games"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Doud, A.J., Lucas, J.P., Pisansky, M.T., and He, B. (2011). Continuous three-dimensional control of a virtual helicopter using a motor imagery based brain-computer interface. PLoS One, 6.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0026322"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"581","DOI":"10.1109\/TNSRE.2010.2077654","article-title":"EEG control of a virtual helicopter in 3-dimensional space using intelligent control strategies","volume":"18","author":"Royer","year":"2010","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Neural Syst. Rehabil. Eng."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"LaFleur, K., Cassady, K., Doud, A., Shades, K., Rogin, E., and He, B. (2013). Quadcopter control in three-dimensional space using a noninvasive motor imagery-based brain-computer interface. J. Neural Eng., 10.","DOI":"10.1088\/1741-2560\/10\/4\/046003"},{"key":"ref_13","unstructured":"Global Entertainment and Media Outlook: 2013\u20132017. Available online: http:\/\/www.pwc.com."},{"key":"ref_14","unstructured":"Allison, B., Graimann, B., and Gr\u00e4ser, A. (2007, January 13\u201315). Why Use a BCI if you are Healthy. Salzburg, Austria."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"26","DOI":"10.1109\/MC.2012.107","article-title":"Brain-Computer Interfaces: Beyond Medical Applications","volume":"45","author":"Lotte","year":"2012","journal-title":"Computer"},{"key":"ref_16","unstructured":"Future BNCI A Roadmap for Future Directions in Brain \/ Neuronal Computer Interaction. Available online: http:\/\/bnci-horizon-2020.eu\/images\/bncih2020\/FBNCI_Roadmap.pdf."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1211","DOI":"10.3390\/s120201211","article-title":"Brain Computer Interfaces, a Review","volume":"12","year":"2012","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fazel-Rezai, R. (2013). Brain-Computer Interface Systems\u2014Recent Progress and Future Prospects, InTech.","DOI":"10.5772\/50696"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tan, D.S., and Nijholt, A. (2010). Brain-Computer Interfaces, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-84996-272-8"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Herrlich, M., Malaka, R., and Masuch, M. (2012). Entertainment Computing\u2014ICEC 2012, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-642-33542-6"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"82","DOI":"10.1109\/TCIAIG.2013.2263555","article-title":"Games, Gameplay, and BCI: The State of the Art","volume":"5","author":"Marshall","year":"2013","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Comput. Intell. AI Games"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"541","DOI":"10.1007\/s12152-011-9132-6","article-title":"The Asilomar Survey: Stakeholders' Opinions on Ethical Issues Related to Brain-Computer Interfacing","volume":"6","author":"Nijboer","year":"2013","journal-title":"Neuroethics"},{"key":"ref_23","unstructured":"Nijboer, F., Allison, B.Z., Dunne, S., Plass-Oude Bos, D., Nijholt, A., and Haselager, P. (2011, January 22\u201324). A Preliminary Survey on the Perception of Marketability of Brain-Computer Interfaces and Initial Development of a Repository of BCI Companies. Graz, Austria."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"292","DOI":"10.1080\/10447318.2011.582022","article-title":"Brain-Computer Interfaces for Multimodal Interaction: A Survey and Principles","volume":"28","author":"Nijholt","year":"2012","journal-title":"Int. J. Hum.-Comput. Interact."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"825","DOI":"10.1109\/TSMCC.2012.2203301","article-title":"Brain-Machine Interfaces: Basis and Advances","volume":"42","author":"Becedas","year":"2012","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Syst. Man Cybern. Part C Appl. Rev."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"814","DOI":"10.1080\/10447318.2013.780869","article-title":"EEG-Based Brain-Computer Interfaces: A Thorough Literature Survey","volume":"29","author":"Hwang","year":"2013","journal-title":"Int. J. Hum.-Comput. Interact."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"R32","DOI":"10.1088\/1741-2560\/4\/2\/R03","article-title":"A survey of signal processing algorithms in brain-computer interfaces based on electrical brain signals","volume":"4","author":"Bashashati","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Neural Eng."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hippe, Z.S., Kulikowski, J.L., and Mroczek, T. (2012). Human\u2014Computer Systems Interaction: Backgrounds and Applications 2, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-642-23187-2"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Somerset, V.S. (2010). Intelligent and Biosensors, InTech.","DOI":"10.5772\/929"},{"key":"ref_30","first-page":"5549","article-title":"Clinical study of neurorehabilitation in stroke using EEG-based motor imagery brain-computer interface with robotic feedback","volume":"2010","author":"Ang","year":"2010","journal-title":"Conf. Proc. IEEE Eng. Med. Biol. Soc."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lim, C.G., Lee, T.S., Guan, C., Fung, D.S.S., Zhao, Y., Teng, S.S.W., Zhang, H., and Krishnan, K.R.R. (2012). A Brain-Computer Interface Based Attention Training Program for Treating Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. PLoS One, 7.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0046692"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zander, T.O., and Kothe, C. (2011). Towards passive brain\u2013computer interfaces: Applying brain-computer interface technology to human\u2013machine systems in general. J. Neural Eng., 8.","DOI":"10.1088\/1741-2560\/8\/2\/025005"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"141","DOI":"10.1109\/TCIAIG.2012.2237517","article-title":"Adapting the P300-Based Brain-Computer Interface for Gaming: A Review","volume":"5","author":"Kaplan","year":"2013","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Comput. Intell. AI Games"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1842","DOI":"10.1016\/S1388-2457(99)00141-8","article-title":"Event-related EEG\/MEG synchronization and desynchronization: Basic principles","volume":"110","author":"Pfurtscheller","year":"1999","journal-title":"Clin. Neurophysiol."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"510","DOI":"10.1016\/0013-4694(88)90149-6","article-title":"Talking off the top of your head: Toward a mental prosthesis utilizing event-related brain potentials","volume":"70","author":"Farwell","year":"1988","journal-title":"Electroencephalogr. Clin. Neurophysiol."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1426","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1528-1167.2005.31405.x","article-title":"Epilepsy Foundation of America Working Group Photic- and pattern-induced seizures: A review for the Epilepsy Foundation of America Working Group","volume":"46","author":"Fisher","year":"2005","journal-title":"Epilepsia"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Schmorrow, D.D., Estabrooke, I.V., and Grootjen, M. (2009). Foundations of Augmented Cognition. Neuroergonomics and Operational Neuroscience, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-642-02812-0"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zander, T.O., and Jatzev, S. (2009, January 10\u201312). Detecting affective covert user states with passive brain-computer interfaces. Amsterdam, The Netherlands.","DOI":"10.1109\/ACII.2009.5349456"},{"key":"ref_39","unstructured":"George, L., and L\u00e9cuyer, A. (2010, January 14\u201316). An overview of research on \u201cpassive\u201d brain-computer interfaces for implicit human-computer interaction. Venice, Italy."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Stephanidis, C., and Antona, M. (2013). Universal Access in Human-Computer Interaction. Design Methods, Tools, and Interaction Techniques for eInclusion, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-642-39188-0"},{"key":"ref_41","unstructured":"Lotte, F. (July, January 28). Brain-computer Interfaces for 3D Games: Hype or Hope. Bordeaux, France."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lotte, F., Congedo, M., L\u00e9cuyer, A., Lamarche, F., and Arnaldi, B. (2007). A review of classification algorithms for EEG-based brain-computer interfaces. J. Neural Eng., 4.","DOI":"10.1088\/1741-2560\/4\/2\/R01"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Krauledat, M., Tangermann, M., Blankertz, B., and M\u00fcller, K.-R. (2008). Towards zero training for brain-computer interfacing. PLoS One, 3.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0002967"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Stephanidis, C. (2011). HCI International 2011\u2014Posters' Extended Abstracts, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-642-22098-2"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Vidaurre, C., Sannelli, C., M\u00fcller, K.-R., and Blankertz, B. (2011). Co-adaptive calibration to improve BCI efficiency. J. Neural Eng., 8.","DOI":"10.1088\/1741-2560\/8\/2\/025009"},{"key":"ref_46","unstructured":"Cho, H., Ahn, M., Ahn, S., and Jun, S.C. (2013, January 3\u20137). Strategy for Reducing Calibration Time with Invariant Common Spatio-Spectral Patterns. Pacific Grove, CA, USA."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"168","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jneumeth.2011.11.002","article-title":"Feasibility of approaches combining sensor and source features in brain\u2013computer interface","volume":"204","author":"Ahn","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Neurosci. Methods"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1541","DOI":"10.1109\/TBME.2005.851521","article-title":"Spatio-spectral filters for improving the classification of single trial EEG","volume":"52","author":"Lemm","year":"2005","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shin, Y., Lee, S., Lee, J., and Lee, H.-N. (2012). Sparse representation-based classification scheme for motor imagery-based brain-computer interface systems. J. Neural Eng., 9.","DOI":"10.1088\/1741-2560\/9\/5\/056002"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Samek, W., Vidaurre, C., M\u00fcller, K.-R., and Kawanabe, M. (2012). Stationary common spatial patterns for brain\u2013computer interfacing. J. Neural Eng., 9.","DOI":"10.1088\/1741-2560\/9\/2\/026013"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"814","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2010.06.048","article-title":"Single-trial analysis and classification of ERP components\u2014A tutorial","volume":"56","author":"Blankertz","year":"2011","journal-title":"Neuroimage"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"297","DOI":"10.1038\/18581","article-title":"A spelling device for the paralysed","volume":"398","author":"Birbaumer","year":"1999","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"827","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijhcs.2009.05.009","article-title":"Designing for uncertain, asymmetric control: Interaction design for brain-computer interfaces","volume":"67","author":"Williamson","year":"2009","journal-title":"Int. J. Hum.-Comput. Stud."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ahmadian, P., Cagnoni, S., and Ascari, L. (2013). How capable is non-invasive EEG data of predicting the next movement? A mini review. Front. Hum. Neurosci., 7.","DOI":"10.3389\/fnhum.2013.00124"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"025001","DOI":"10.1088\/1741-2560\/8\/2\/025001","article-title":"Current trends in hardware and software for brain-computer interfaces (BCIs)","volume":"8","author":"Brunner","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Neural Eng."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1034","DOI":"10.1109\/TBME.2004.827072","article-title":"BCI2000: A general-purpose brain-computer interface (BCI) system","volume":"51","author":"Schalk","year":"2004","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"35","DOI":"10.1162\/pres.19.1.35","article-title":"OpenViBE: An Open-Source Software Platform to Design, Test, and Use Brain-Computer Interfaces in Real and Virtual Environments","volume":"19","author":"Renard","year":"2010","journal-title":"Presence Teleoper. Virtual Environ."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Oum, K., Ayaz, H., Shewokis, P.A., and Diefenbach, P. (2010, January 21\u201323). MindTactics: A Brain Computer Interface gaming platform. Hong Kong, China.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICEGIC.2010.5716901"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ko, M., Bae, K., Oh, G., and Ryu, T. (2009, January 1\u20134). A Study on New Gameplay Based on Brain-Computer Interface. London, UK.","DOI":"10.26503\/dl.v2009i1.373"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sweetser, P., and Wyeth, P. (2005). GameFlow: A Model for Evaluating Player Enjoyment in Games. Comput. Entertain., 3.","DOI":"10.1145\/1077246.1077253"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Stevens, S.M., and Saldamarco, S.J. (2009). Entertainment Computing\u2014ICEC 2008, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-540-89222-9"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nijholt, A., Reidsma, D., and Hondorp, H. (2009). Intelligent Technologies for Interactive Entertainment, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-642-02315-6"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pfurtscheller, G., Allison, B.Z., Brunner, C., Bauernfeind, G., Solis-Escalante, T., Scherer, R., Zander, T.O., Mueller-Putz, G., Neuper, C., and Birbaumer, N. (2010). The hybrid BCI. Front. Neurosci., 4.","DOI":"10.3389\/fnpro.2010.00003"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Amiri, S., Fazel-Rezai, R., and Asadpour, V. (2013). A Review of Hybrid Brain-Computer Interface Systems. Adv. Hum.-Comput. Interact., 2013.","DOI":"10.1155\/2013\/187024"},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Stephanidis, C. (2011). Universal Access in Human-Computer Interaction Users Diversity, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-642-21663-3"},{"key":"ref_66","first-page":"54","article-title":"User Experience Evaluation in BCI: Filling the Gap","volume":"13","author":"Nijboer","year":"2011","journal-title":"Int. J. Bioelectromagn."},{"key":"ref_67","first-page":"48","article-title":"User Experience Evaluation in BCI: Mind the Gap!","volume":"13","author":"Nijboer","year":"2011","journal-title":"Int. J. Bioelectromagn."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/14\/8\/14601\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T21:14:38Z","timestamp":1760217278000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/14\/8\/14601"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2014,8,11]]},"references-count":67,"journal-issue":{"issue":"8","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2014,8]]}},"alternative-id":["s140814601"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s140814601","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2014,8,11]]}}}