{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,1]],"date-time":"2026-06-01T19:46:57Z","timestamp":1780343217728,"version":"3.54.1"},"reference-count":34,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"10","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2014,10,17]],"date-time":"2014-10-17T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1413504000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"The Natural Science Foundation of Jiangsu Province (Youth)","award":["BK20140538"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["BK20140538"]}]},{"name":"The China Postdoctoral Science Foundation","award":["2014M550273"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2014M550273"]}]},{"name":"The Advanced Talents Science Foundation of Jiangsu University","award":["13JDG094"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["13JDG094"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>In order to assure the consistency of the final product quality, a fast and effective process monitoring is a growing need in solid state fermentation (SSF) industry. This work investigated the potential of non-invasive techniques combined with the chemometrics method, to monitor time-related changes that occur during SSF process of feed protein. Four fermentation trials conducted were monitored by an electronic nose device and a near infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) spectrometer. Firstly, principal component analysis (PCA) and independent component analysis (ICA) were respectively applied to the feature extraction and information fusion. Then, the BP_AdaBoost algorithm was used to develop the fused model for monitoring of the critical time in SSF process of feed protein. Experimental results showed that the identified results of the fusion model are much better than those of the single technique model both in the training and validation sets, and the complexity of the fusion model was also less than that of the single technique model. The overall results demonstrate that it has a high potential in online monitoring of the critical moment in SSF process by use of integrating electronic nose and NIRS techniques, and data fusion from multi-technique could significantly improve the monitoring performance of SSF process.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s141019441","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2014,10,17]],"date-time":"2014-10-17T10:27:19Z","timestamp":1413541639000},"page":"19441-19456","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":17,"title":["Development of Electronic Nose and Near Infrared Spectroscopy Analysis Techniques to Monitor the Critical Time in SSF Process of Feed Protein"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"given":"Hui","family":"Jiang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Electrical and Information Engineering, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang 212013, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Quansheng","family":"Chen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Food and Biological Engineering, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang 212013, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2014,10,17]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"171","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jmii.2012.04.001","article-title":"Protein enrichment and digestion improvement of napiergrass and pangolagrass with solid-state fermentation","volume":"46","author":"Hsu","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Microbiol. Immunol. Infect."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"277","DOI":"10.1016\/S0960-8524(01)00024-4","article-title":"Bioconversion of corn straw by coupling ensiling and solid-state fermentation","volume":"78","author":"Yang","year":"2001","journal-title":"Bioresour. Technol."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chemosphere.2012.12.015","article-title":"Improving the nutritive value of olive cake by solid state cultivation of the medicinal mushroom fomes fomentarius","volume":"91","author":"Neifar","year":"2013","journal-title":"Chemosphere"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"347","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biortech.2011.12.096","article-title":"Solid state bioconversion of wheat straw into digestible and nutritive ruminant feed by ganoderma sp. Rckk02","volume":"107","author":"Shrivastava","year":"2012","journal-title":"Bioresour. Technol."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"223","DOI":"10.1016\/j.enzmictec.2009.09.008","article-title":"Stoned olive pomace fermentation with pleurotus species and its evaluation as a possible animal feed","volume":"46","author":"Brozzoli","year":"2010","journal-title":"Enzym. Microb. Technol."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2223","DOI":"10.1016\/j.wasman.2009.12.017","article-title":"Value addition of vegetable wastes by solid-state fermentation using aspergillus niger for use in aquafeed industry","volume":"30","author":"Rajesh","year":"2010","journal-title":"Waste Manag"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"415","DOI":"10.1021\/jf0304876","article-title":"On-line multisensor monitoring of yogurt and filmj\u00f6lk fermentations on production scale","volume":"52","author":"Cimander","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Agric. Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"294","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2011.07.009","article-title":"Discrimination of green tea quality using the electronic nose technique and the human panel test, comparison of linear and nonlinear classification tools","volume":"159","author":"Chen","year":"2011","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators B Chem."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"835","DOI":"10.1007\/s00449-011-0667-z","article-title":"Customized design of electronic noses placed on top of air-lift bioreactors for in situ monitoring the off-gas patterns","volume":"35","author":"Rosi","year":"2012","journal-title":"Bioprocess Biosyst. Eng."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4927","DOI":"10.1021\/ac050139y","article-title":"Direct integration of pervaporation as a sample preparation method for a dedicated \u201celectronic nose\u201d","volume":"77","author":"Pinheiro","year":"2005","journal-title":"Anal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_11","first-page":"1","article-title":"Identification of Saccharomyces cerevisiae strains for alcoholic fermentation by discriminant factorial analysis on electronic nose signals","volume":"13","author":"Chalier","year":"2010","journal-title":"Electron. J. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"632","DOI":"10.1002\/bit.10141","article-title":"Monitoring the aroma production during wine-must fermentation with an electronic nose","volume":"77","author":"Pinheiro","year":"2002","journal-title":"Biotechnol. Bioeng."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2007.12.032","article-title":"Preemptive identification of optimum fermentation time for black tea using electronic nose","volume":"131","author":"Bhattacharya","year":"2008","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators B Chem."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1146","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jfoodeng.2006.09.006","article-title":"Monitoring of black tea fermentation process using electronic nose","volume":"80","author":"Bhattacharyya","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Food Eng."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"627","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2006.07.013","article-title":"Detection of optimum fermentation time for black tea manufacturing using electronic nose","volume":"122","author":"Bhattacharyya","year":"2007","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators B Chem."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"72","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tifs.2006.09.003","article-title":"Theory and application of near infrared reflectance spectroscopy in determination of food quality","volume":"18","author":"Cen","year":"2007","journal-title":"Trends Food Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2053","DOI":"10.1016\/j.lwt.2011.05.015","article-title":"Application of linear\/non-linear classification algorithms in discrimination of pork storage time using fourier transform near infrared (ft-nir) spectroscopy","volume":"44","author":"Chen","year":"2011","journal-title":"LWT\u2014Food Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"660","DOI":"10.1039\/b719318a","article-title":"In situ monitoring of the seed stage of a fermentation process using non-invasive nir spectrometry","volume":"133","author":"Nordon","year":"2008","journal-title":"Analyst"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"263","DOI":"10.1002\/btpr.288","article-title":"In situ near infrared spectroscopy for analyte-specific monitoring of glucose and ammonium in streptomyces coelicolor fermentations","volume":"26","author":"Petersen","year":"2010","journal-title":"Biotechnol. Prog."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.1002\/bit.10738","article-title":"In-situ near infrared spectroscopy to monitor key analytes in mammalian cell cultivation","volume":"84","author":"Arnold","year":"2003","journal-title":"Biotechnol. Bioeng."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"621","DOI":"10.1016\/j.enzmictec.2003.12.016","article-title":"Monitoring a high cell density recombinant pichia pastoris fed-batch bioprocess using transmission and reflectance near infrared spectroscopy","volume":"36","author":"Crowley","year":"2005","journal-title":"Enzym. Microb. Technol."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"132","DOI":"10.1366\/000370203321535024","article-title":"Near-infrared spectroscopy: A tool for monitoring submerged fermentation processes using an immersion optical-fiber probe","volume":"57","author":"Tamburini","year":"2003","journal-title":"Appl. Spectrosc."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"47","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bej.2012.11.009","article-title":"Robust near-infra-red spectroscopic probe for dynamic monitoring of critical nutrient ratio in microbial fermentation processes","volume":"71","author":"Tiwari","year":"2013","journal-title":"Biochem. Eng. J."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1476","DOI":"10.1016\/j.enzmictec.2006.03.043","article-title":"Lignin degradation by white rot fungi on spruce wood shavings during short-time solid-state fermentations monitored by near infrared spectroscopy","volume":"39","author":"Fackler","year":"2006","journal-title":"Enzym. Microb. Technol."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"277","DOI":"10.1016\/j.saa.2012.06.024","article-title":"Measurement of process variables in solid-state fermentation of wheat straw using ft-nir spectroscopy and synergy interval pls algorithm","volume":"97","author":"Jiang","year":"2012","journal-title":"Spectrochim. Acta Part A Mol. Biomol. Spectrosc."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"68","DOI":"10.1016\/j.microc.2011.12.003","article-title":"Monitoring of solid-state fermentation of wheat straw in a pilot scale using ft-nir spectroscopy and support vector data description","volume":"102","author":"Jiang","year":"2012","journal-title":"Microchem. J."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"603","DOI":"10.1007\/s00216-012-6128-y","article-title":"Rapid determination of ph in solid-state fermentation of wheat straw by ft-nir spectroscopy and efficient wavelengths selection","volume":"404","author":"Jiang","year":"2012","journal-title":"Anal. Bioanal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"67","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aca.2011.04.020","article-title":"Monitoring of alcoholic fermentation using near infrared and mid infrared spectroscopies combined with electronic nose and electronic tongue","volume":"697","author":"Buratti","year":"2011","journal-title":"Anal. Chim. Acta"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"237","DOI":"10.1016\/S0168-1656(02)00213-4","article-title":"Sensor fusion for on-line monitoring of yoghurt fermentation","volume":"99","author":"Cimander","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_30","first-page":"2997","article-title":"Combination of near infrared spectroscopy and electronic nose for alcohol quantification during the red wine fermentation","volume":"32","author":"Zhang","year":"2012","journal-title":"Spectrosc. Spectral Anal."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"347","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2005.03.090","article-title":"Electronic nose technique potential monitoring mandarin maturity","volume":"113","author":"Wang","year":"2006","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators B Chem."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"799","DOI":"10.1016\/j.amc.2008.05.117","article-title":"A fast and adaptive ica algorithm with its application to fetal electrocardiogram extraction","volume":"205","author":"Ye","year":"2008","journal-title":"Appl. Math. Comput."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"259","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-642-27711-5_35","article-title":"Speech Characteristic Signal Recognition Based on bp_adaboost","volume":"Volume 136","author":"Tan","year":"2012","journal-title":"Technology for Education and Learning"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"228","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodchem.2013.06.073","article-title":"Nondestructive measurement of total volatile basic nitrogen (tvb-n) in pork meat by integrating near infrared spectroscopy, computer vision and electronic nose techniques","volume":"145","author":"Huang","year":"2014","journal-title":"Food Chem."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/14\/10\/19441\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T21:17:05Z","timestamp":1760217425000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/14\/10\/19441"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2014,10,17]]},"references-count":34,"journal-issue":{"issue":"10","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2014,10]]}},"alternative-id":["s141019441"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s141019441","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2014,10,17]]}}}