{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,28]],"date-time":"2026-04-28T14:26:31Z","timestamp":1777386391994,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":77,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"12","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2014,11,28]],"date-time":"2014-11-28T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1417132800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Swedish International Development Corporation","award":["2009-176"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2009-176"]}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100004527","name":"Energimyndigheten","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["35586-1"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["35586-1"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100004527","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100004359","name":"Vetenskapsr\u00e5det","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["348-2013-6547"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["348-2013-6547"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100004359","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Detailed information on tree cover structure is critical for research and monitoring programs targeting African woodlands, including agroforestry parklands. High spatial resolution satellite imagery represents a potentially effective alternative to  field-based surveys, but requires the development of accurate methods to automate information extraction. This study presents a method for tree crown mapping based on Geographic Object Based Image Analysis (GEOBIA) that use spectral and geometric information to detect and delineate individual tree crowns and crown clusters. The method was implemented on a WorldView-2 image acquired over the parklands of Sapon\u00e9, Burkina Faso, and rigorously evaluated against field reference data. The overall detection rate was 85.4% for individual tree crowns and crown clusters, with lower accuracies in areas with high tree density and dense understory vegetation. The overall delineation error (expressed as the difference between area of delineated object and crown area measured in the field) was 45.6% for individual tree crowns and 61.5% for crown clusters. Delineation accuracies were higher for medium (35\u2013100 m2) and large (\u2265100 m2) trees compared to small (&lt;35 m2) trees. The results indicate potential of GEOBIA and WorldView-2 imagery for tree crown mapping in parkland landscapes and similar woodland areas.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s141222643","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2014,11,28]],"date-time":"2014-11-28T14:11:21Z","timestamp":1417183881000},"page":"22643-22669","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":46,"title":["Tree Crown Mapping in Managed Woodlands (Parklands) of Semi-Arid West Africa Using WorldView-2 Imagery and Geographic Object Based Image Analysis"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"given":"Martin","family":"Karlson","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre for Climate Science and Policy Research, Department of Thematic Studies\/Environmental Change, Link\u00f6ping University, Link\u00f6ping 58183, Sweden"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2128-7787","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Heather","family":"Reese","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Section of Forest Remote Sensing, Department of Forest Resource Management,  Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Ume\u00e5 901 83, Sweden"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Madelene","family":"Ostwald","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre for Climate Science and Policy Research, Department of Thematic Studies\/Environmental Change, Link\u00f6ping University, Link\u00f6ping 58183, Sweden"},{"name":"Centre for Environment and Sustainability, GMV, University of Gothenburg and  Chalmers University of Technology, G\u00f6teborg 405 30, Sweden"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2014,11,28]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chidumayo, E.N., and Gumbo, D.J. (2010). The Dry Forests and Woodlands of Africa: Managing for Products and Services, Earth Scan.","DOI":"10.4324\/9781849776547"},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"White, F. (1983). Vegetation of Africa: A Descriptive Memoir to Accompany the UNESCO\/AETFAT\/UNSO Vegetation Map of Africa, UNESCO."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"861","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2699.2004.01073.x","article-title":"A new land-cover map of Africa for the year 2000","volume":"31","author":"Mayaux","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Biogeogr."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chidumayo, E.N., and Gumbo, D.J. (2010). The Dry Forests and Woodlands of Africa: Managing for Products and Services, Earth Scan.","DOI":"10.4324\/9781849776547"},{"key":"ref_5","unstructured":"(2011). Livelihood Security. Climate Change, Migration and Conflict in the Sahel, UNEP."},{"key":"ref_6","unstructured":"Boffa, J.M. (1999). Agroforestry Parkland in Sub-Saharan Africa FAO Conservation Guide 34, Rome."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zomer, R.J., Trabucco, A., Coe, R., and Place, F. (2009). Trees on farm: Analysis of Global Extent and Geographical Patterns of Agroforestry Working Paper No 89, The World Agroforestry Centre.","DOI":"10.5716\/WP16263.PDF"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chidumayo, E.N., and Gumbo, D.J. (2010). The Dry Forests and Woodlands of Africa: Managing for Products and Services, Earth Scan.","DOI":"10.4324\/9781849776547"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"28","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cosust.2013.10.004","article-title":"Parklands for buffering climate risk and sustaining agricultural production in the Sahel of West Africa","volume":"6","author":"Bayala","year":"2014","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Environ. Sustain."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gonzalez, P. (2001). Desertification and a shift of forest species in the West African Sahel. Clim. Res., 217\u2013228.","DOI":"10.3354\/cr017217"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"55","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaridenv.2011.11.001","article-title":"Tree density and species decline in the African Sahel attributable to climate","volume":"78","author":"Gonzalez","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Arid Environ."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Maranz, S. (2009). Tree mortality in the African Sahel indicates an anthropogenic ecosystem displaced by climate change. J. Biogeogr., 1181\u20131193.","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2699.2008.02081.x"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1261","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1008877819286","article-title":"Assessment of species composition change in savanna vegetation by means of woody plants' size class distributions and local information","volume":"7","author":"Lykke","year":"1998","journal-title":"Biodivers. Conserv."},{"key":"ref_14","unstructured":"Basset, T.J., and Crummey, D. (2003). African Savannas: Global Narratives and Local Knowledge of Environmental Change, James Currey."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"443","DOI":"10.1007\/s10457-011-9397-0","article-title":"Regeneration of Vitellaria paradoxa and Parkia biglobosa in a parkland in Southern Burkina Faso","volume":"85","author":"Hansen","year":"2012","journal-title":"Agrofor. Syst."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"261","DOI":"10.1006\/jare.2002.1089","article-title":"Regional perspectives on agriculture and biodiversity in the drylands of Africa","volume":"54","author":"Darkoh","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Arid Environ."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"383","DOI":"10.14358\/PERS.72.4.383","article-title":"Object-based analysis of IKONOS-2 imagery for extraction of forest inventory parameters","volume":"72","author":"Chubey","year":"2006","journal-title":"Photogramm. Eng. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"385","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envsci.2007.01.010","article-title":"Earth observations for estimating greenhouse gas emissions from deforestation in developing countries","volume":"10","author":"DeFries","year":"2007","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Policy"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"403","DOI":"10.1177\/0309133309342643","article-title":"Supporting large-area, sample based forest inventories with very high spatial resolution satellite imagery","volume":"33","author":"Falkowski","year":"2009","journal-title":"Prog. Phys. Geogr."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"311","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2004.10.011","article-title":"Automated tree recognition in old growth conifer stands with high resolution digital imagery","volume":"94","author":"Leckie","year":"2005","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_21","first-page":"517","article-title":"Tree survey and allometric models for tiger bush in northern Senegal and comparison with tree parameters derived from high resolution satellite data","volume":"13","author":"Rasmussen","year":"2011","journal-title":"Int. J. Appl. Earth Observ. Geoinf."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"267","DOI":"10.1007\/s10457-012-9529-1","article-title":"Crown area allometries for estimation of aboveground tree biomass in agricultural landscapes of western Kenya","volume":"86","author":"Kuyah","year":"2012","journal-title":"Agrofor. Syst."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"34","DOI":"10.1007\/s10310-013-0402-5","article-title":"Estimation of aboveground biomass in mangrove forests using high-resolution satellite data","volume":"19","author":"Hirata","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. For. Res."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3462","DOI":"10.3390\/rs4113462","article-title":"Mapping savanna tree species at ecosystem scales using support vector machine classification and BRDF correction on airborne hyperspectral and LiDAR data","volume":"4","author":"Colgan","year":"2012","journal-title":"Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5064","DOI":"10.3390\/rs5105064","article-title":"Assessing water stress of desert tamarugo trees using in situdata and very high spatial resolution remote sensing","volume":"5","author":"Clevers","year":"2013","journal-title":"Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2661","DOI":"10.3390\/rs4092661","article-title":"Tree species classification with random forest using very high spatial resolution 8-band WorldView-2 satellite data","volume":"4","author":"Immitzer","year":"2012","journal-title":"Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2088","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2007.10.011","article-title":"Classification of Australian forest communities using aerial photography, CASI and HyMap data","volume":"112","author":"Lucas","year":"2008","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"214","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2012.07.010","article-title":"Mapping tree species composition in South African savannas using an integrated airborne spectral and LiDAR system","volume":"125","author":"Cho","year":"2012","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"73","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2012.2199323","article-title":"Tree species discrimination in tropical forests using airborne imaging spectroscopy","volume":"51","author":"Asner","year":"2013","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envsci.2012.01.005","article-title":"Assessing capacities of non-Annex I countries for national forest monitoring in the context of REDD+","volume":"19\u201320","author":"Romijn","year":"2012","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Policy"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"483","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1744-7429.2002.tb00568.x","article-title":"Estimating canopy structure in an Amazon forest from laser range finder and IKONOS satellite observations","volume":"34","author":"Asner","year":"2002","journal-title":"Biotropica"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"592","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1365-2664.2003.00814.x","article-title":"Application of 1-m and 4-m resolution satellite data to research and management in tropical forests","volume":"40","author":"Read","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Appl. Ecol."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"61","DOI":"10.1890\/02-5120","article-title":"Application of 1-m and 4-m resolution satellite data to studies of tree demography, stand structure and land use classification in tropical rain forest landscapes","volume":"14","author":"Clark","year":"2004","journal-title":"Ecol. Appl."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4725","DOI":"10.1080\/01431161.2010.494184","article-title":"A review of methods for automatic individual tree-crown detection and delineation from passive remote sensing","volume":"32","author":"Ke","year":"2011","journal-title":"Int. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3431","DOI":"10.1007\/s10531-008-9479-0","article-title":"High resolution satellite imagery for tropical biodiversity studies: The devil is in the detail","volume":"17","author":"Nagendra","year":"2008","journal-title":"Biodivers. Conserv."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"478","DOI":"10.3390\/rs2020478","article-title":"Assessing plant diversity in a dry tropical forest: Comparing the utility of Landsat and IKONOS satellite images","volume":"2","author":"Nagendra","year":"2010","journal-title":"Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_37","unstructured":"Karlsson, M.; Ostwald, M. Link\u00f6ping University, Link\u00f6ping, Sweden. Unpublished work, 2014."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103","DOI":"10.1016\/S0034-4257(00)00101-2","article-title":"Local maximum filtering for the extraction of tree locations and basal area from high spatial resolution imagery","volume":"73","author":"Wulder","year":"2000","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"832","DOI":"10.1139\/x01-013","article-title":"Individual tree detection in digital aerial images by combining locally adaptive binarization and local maxima methods","volume":"31","year":"2001","journal-title":"Can. J. For. Res."},{"key":"ref_40","unstructured":"Pollock, R.J. (1996). Automatic Recognitionof Individual Trees in Aerial Images of Forests Based on a Synthetic Tree Crown Model. [PhD Thesis, University of British Columbia]."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.1016\/S0098-3004(00)00110-2","article-title":"TIDA An algorithm for the delineation of TCs in high spatial resolution remotely sensed imagery","volume":"28","author":"Culvenor","year":"2002","journal-title":"Comput. Geosci."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"274","DOI":"10.1080\/07038992.1995.10874622","article-title":"A crown-following approach to the automatic delineation of individual TCs in high spatial resolution aerial images","volume":"21","author":"Gougeon","year":"1995","journal-title":"Can. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"351","DOI":"10.14358\/PERS.70.3.351","article-title":"Individual tree-crown delineation and treetop detection in high-spatial-resolution aerial imagery","volume":"70","author":"Wang","year":"2004","journal-title":"Photogramm. Eng. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"230","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2005.12.015","article-title":"The delineation of tree crowns in Australian mixed species forests using hyperspectral Compact Airborne Spectrographic Imager (CASI) data","volume":"101","author":"Bunting","year":"2006","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1287","DOI":"10.14358\/PERS.72.11.1287","article-title":"The individual tree crown approach applied to IKONOS images of a coniferous plantation area","volume":"72","author":"Gougeon","year":"2006","journal-title":"Photogramm. Eng. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1022","DOI":"10.1890\/1051-0761(1998)008[1022:HOSCSA]2.0.CO;2","article-title":"Heterogeneity of savanna canopy structure and function from imaging spectrometry and inverse modeling","volume":"8","author":"Asner","year":"1998","journal-title":"Ecol. Appl."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"306","DOI":"10.1007\/s00442-005-0129-x","article-title":"Seasonal leaf dynamics across a tree density gradient in a Brazilian savanna","volume":"145","author":"Hoffman","year":"2005","journal-title":"Oecologica"},{"key":"ref_48","first-page":"57","article-title":"Context-sensitive extraction of tree crown objects in urban areas using VHR satellite images","volume":"15","author":"Ardila","year":"2012","journal-title":"Int. J. Appl. Earth Observ. Geoinf."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2","DOI":"10.1016\/j.isprsjprs.2009.06.004","article-title":"Object based image analysis for remote sensing","volume":"65","author":"Blaschke","year":"2010","journal-title":"ISPRS J. Photogramm. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_50","unstructured":"Strobl, J., and Griesebner, G. (2000). Angewandte Geographische Informationsverarbeitung, Herbert Wichmann Verlag. [7th ed.]."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"239","DOI":"10.1016\/j.isprsjprs.2003.10.002","article-title":"Multi-resolution, object-oriented fuzzy analysis of remote sensing data for GIS-ready information","volume":"58","author":"Benz","year":"2004","journal-title":"ISPRS J. Photogramm. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_52","unstructured":"Hay, G.J., and Castilla, G. (2008). Object Based Image Analysis, Springer. [1st ed.]."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"121","DOI":"10.1016\/0034-4257(86)90018-0","article-title":"On the nature of models in remote sensing","volume":"20","author":"Strahler","year":"1986","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2748","DOI":"10.3390\/rs2122748","article-title":"Application of Object Based Classification and High Resolution Satellite Imagery for Savanna Ecosystem Analysis","volume":"2","author":"Gibbes","year":"2010","journal-title":"Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_55","first-page":"217","article-title":"Assessment of SPOT 5 and Quickbird remotely sensed imagery for mapping tree cover in savannas","volume":"12","author":"Boggs","year":"2010","journal-title":"Int. J. Appl. Earth Observ. Geoinf."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1633","DOI":"10.5194\/hess-11-1633-2007","article-title":"Updated world map of the K\u00f6ppen-Geiger climate classification","volume":"11","author":"Peel","year":"2007","journal-title":"Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"39","DOI":"10.1017\/S0014479799001039","article-title":"Influence of scattered nere and karite trees on microclimate, soil fertility and millet yield in Burkina Faso","volume":"35","author":"Jonsson","year":"1999","journal-title":"Exp. Agric."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Le Houerou, H.N. (1989). The Grazing Land Ecosystems of the African Sahel, Springer. [1st ed.].","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-642-74457-0"},{"key":"ref_59","unstructured":"Arbonnier, M. (2004). Trees, Shrubs and Lianas of West African Dry Zones, Margaf Publishers. [2nd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_60","unstructured":"Updike, T., and Comp, C. (2010). Technical Note, Digital Globe."},{"key":"ref_61","unstructured":"Padwick, C., Deskevich, M., Pacifici, F., and Smallwood, S. (2010, January 26\u201330). WorldView-2 Pan-Sharpening. San Diego, CA, USA."},{"key":"ref_62","first-page":"309","article-title":"Monitoring vegetation systems in the great plains with ERTS","volume":"351","author":"Rouse","year":"1974","journal-title":"NASA Special Publication"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"45","DOI":"10.1007\/s10661-010-1492-6","article-title":"Double sampling for stratification for the monitoring of sparse tree populations: The example of Populus euphratica Oliv. forests at the lower reaches of Tarim River, Southern Xinjiang, China","volume":"175","author":"Lam","year":"2011","journal-title":"Environ. Monit. Assess."},{"key":"ref_64","unstructured":"Mueller-Dombois, D., and Ellenberg, H. (1974). Aims and Methods of Vegetation Ecology, the Blackburne Press. [1st ed.]."},{"key":"ref_65","unstructured":"(2012). eCognition Developer Reference Book, Trimble."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"224","DOI":"10.1016\/0034-4257(94)90018-3","article-title":"Development of vegetation and soil indices for MODIS-EOS","volume":"49","author":"Huete","year":"1994","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_67","unstructured":"Ball, G.H., and Hall, D.J. (1965). Technical Report, Stanford Research Institute."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dougherty, E.R. (1993). Mathematical Morphology in Image Processing, CRC Press. [1st ed.].","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4615-3148-7"},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"322","DOI":"10.1016\/S0034-4257(02)00050-0","article-title":"Automated tree crown detection and delineation in high-resolution digital camera imagery of coniferous forest regeneration","volume":"82","author":"Pouliot","year":"2002","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"79","DOI":"10.3354\/cr030079","article-title":"Advantages of the mean absolute error (MAE) over the root mean square error (RMSE) in assessing average model performance","volume":"30","author":"Willmot","year":"2005","journal-title":"Clim. Res."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"197","DOI":"10.14358\/PERS.73.2.197","article-title":"Combining decision trees with hierarchical object-oriented image analysis for mapping arid rangelands","volume":"73","author":"Laliberte","year":"2007","journal-title":"Photogramm. Eng. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"463","DOI":"10.1093\/forestry\/cpt017","article-title":"Assessment of Cartosat-1 and WorldView-2 stereo imagery in combination with a LiDAR-DTM for timber volume estimation in a highly structured forest in Germany","volume":"86","author":"Straub","year":"2013","journal-title":"Forestry"},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"64","DOI":"10.1007\/s001380050091","article-title":"Automated delineation of individual tree crowns in high spatial resolution aerial images by multiple-scale analysis","volume":"11","author":"Brandtberg","year":"1998","journal-title":"Mach. Vis. Appl."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2524","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foreco.2008.01.049","article-title":"An assessment of Hawaiin dry forest condition with fine resolution remote sensing","volume":"7","author":"Morales","year":"2008","journal-title":"For. Ecol. Manag."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"209","DOI":"10.1038\/nature06060","article-title":"Positive feedbacks promote power-law clustering of Kalahari vegetation","volume":"449","author":"Scanlon","year":"2007","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"439","DOI":"10.1086\/419172","article-title":"From balance of nature to hierarchical patch dynamics: A paradigm shift in ecology","volume":"70","author":"Wu","year":"1995","journal-title":"Quart. Rev. Biol."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4900","DOI":"10.3390\/rs5104900","article-title":"Estimation of tree cover in an agricultural parkland of Senegal using rule-based regression tree modeling","volume":"5","author":"Herrmann","year":"2014","journal-title":"Remote Sens."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/14\/12\/22643\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T21:10:08Z","timestamp":1760217008000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/14\/12\/22643"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2014,11,28]]},"references-count":77,"journal-issue":{"issue":"12","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2014,12]]}},"alternative-id":["s141222643"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s141222643","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2014,11,28]]}}}