{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,12]],"date-time":"2025-10-12T04:27:50Z","timestamp":1760243270571,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":25,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2014,12,24]],"date-time":"2014-12-24T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1419379200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>global navigation satellite system (GNSS) receivers are usually unable to achieve satisfactory performance in difficult environments, such as open-pit mines, urban canyons and indoors. Pseudolites have the potential to extend GNSS usage and significantly improve receiver performance in such environments by providing additional navigation signals. This also applies to asynchronous pseudolite systems, where different pseudolites operate in an independent way. Asynchronous pseudolite systems require, however, dedicated strategies in order to properly integrate GNSS and pseudolite measurements. In this paper, several asynchronous pseudolite\/GNSS integration strategies are considered: loosely- and tightly-coupled approaches are developed and combined with pseudolite proximity and receiver signal strength (RSS)-based positioning. The performance of the approaches proposed has been tested in different scenarios, including static and kinematic conditions. The tests performed demonstrate that the methods developed are effective techniques for integrating heterogeneous measurements from different sources, such as asynchronous pseudolites and GNSS.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s150100166","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2014,12,24]],"date-time":"2014-12-24T11:51:41Z","timestamp":1419421901000},"page":"166-193","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":14,"title":["Stand-Alone and Hybrid Positioning Using Asynchronous Pseudolites"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"given":"Ciro","family":"Gioia","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"European Commission, Joint Research Centre (JRC), Institute for the Protection and Security of the Citizen (JRC), Security Technology Assessment Unit, Via Enrico Fermi 2749, 21027 Ispra (VA), Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Daniele","family":"Borio","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"European Commission, Joint Research Centre (JRC), Institute for the Protection and Security of the Citizen (JRC), Security Technology Assessment Unit, Via Enrico Fermi 2749, 21027 Ispra (VA), Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2014,12,24]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"303","DOI":"10.1002\/j.2161-4296.1984.tb00881.x","article-title":"The Use of Pseudo-Satellites for Improving GPS Performance","volume":"31","author":"Klein","year":"1984","journal-title":"Navigation"},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"Cobb, S.H. 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