{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,14]],"date-time":"2026-04-14T05:48:47Z","timestamp":1776145727705,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":38,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2015,2,3]],"date-time":"2015-02-03T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1422921600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>3D models of indoor environments are increasingly gaining importance due to the wide range of applications to which they can be subjected: from redesign and visualization to monitoring and simulation. These models usually exist only for newly constructed buildings; therefore, the development of automatic approaches for reconstructing 3D indoors from imagery and\/or point clouds can make the process easier, faster and cheaper. Among the constructive elements defining a building interior, doors are very common elements and their detection can be very useful either for knowing the environment structure, to perform an efficient navigation or to plan appropriate evacuation routes. The fact that doors are topologically connected to walls by being coplanar, together with the unavoidable presence of clutter and occlusions indoors, increases the inherent complexity of the automation of the recognition process. In this work, we present a pipeline of techniques used for the reconstruction and interpretation of building interiors based on point clouds and images. The methodology analyses the visibility problem of indoor environments and goes in depth with door candidate detection. The presented approach is tested in real data sets showing its potential with a high door detection rate and applicability for robust and efficient  envelope reconstruction.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s150203491","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2015,2,3]],"date-time":"2015-02-03T09:20:19Z","timestamp":1422955219000},"page":"3491-3512","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":70,"title":["3D Modeling of Building Indoor Spaces and Closed Doors from Imagery and Point Clouds"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2382-9431","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Luc\u00eda","family":"D\u00edaz-Vilari\u00f1o","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Applied Geotechnologies Research Group, University of Vigo. R\u00faa Maxwell s\/n, Campus  Lagoas-Marcosende, Vigo 36310, Spain"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Kourosh","family":"Khoshelham","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Geo-Information Science and Earth Observation, University of Twente, P.O. Box 217, Enschede 7514 AE, The Netherlands"},{"name":"Department of Infrastructure Engineering, University of Melbourne, Melbourne 3010, Australia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Joaqu\u00edn","family":"Mart\u00ednez-S\u00e1nchez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Applied Geotechnologies Research Group, University of Vigo. R\u00faa Maxwell s\/n, Campus  Lagoas-Marcosende, Vigo 36310, Spain"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Pedro","family":"Arias","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Applied Geotechnologies Research Group, University of Vigo. R\u00faa Maxwell s\/n, Campus  Lagoas-Marcosende, Vigo 36310, Spain"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2015,2,3]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"van Oosterom, P., Zlatanova, S., and Fendel, E. (2005, January 21\u201323). CityGML: Interoperable access to 3D city models. Delft, The Netherlands."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"829","DOI":"10.1016\/j.autcon.2010.06.007","article-title":"Automatic reconstruction of as-built building information models from laser-scanned point clouds: A review of related techniques","volume":"19","author":"Tang","year":"2010","journal-title":"Autom. Constr."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"570","DOI":"10.1016\/j.isprsjprs.2010.09.006","article-title":"An update on automatic 3D building reconstruction","volume":"65","author":"Haala","year":"2010","journal-title":"ISPRS J. Photogramm. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"269","DOI":"10.1016\/j.solener.2013.03.017","article-title":"Semantic as-built 3D models including shades for the evaluation of solar influence on buildings","volume":"92","author":"Armesto","year":"2013","journal-title":"Solar Energy"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"153","DOI":"10.1016\/S0924-2716(99)00004-0","article-title":"Two algorithms for extracting building models from raw laser altimetry data","volume":"54","author":"Maas","year":"1999","journal-title":"ISPRS J. Photogramm. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_6","unstructured":"Tarsha-Kurdi, F., Landes, T., and Grussenmeyer, P. (2007, January 12\u201314). Hough-Transform and extended RANSAC algorithms for automatic detection of 3D building roof planes from LIDAR data. Espoo, Finland."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"342","DOI":"10.1111\/j.0031-868X.2004.00290.x","article-title":"A Model-Based Approach to Semi-Automated Reconstruction of Buildings from Aerial Images","volume":"19","author":"Khoshelham","year":"2004","journal-title":"Photogramm. Record"},{"key":"ref_8","unstructured":"Becker, S., Peter, M., Fritsch, D., Philipp, D., Baier, P., and Dibak, C. (2013, January 11\u201313). Combined Grammar for the Modeling of Building Interiors. Cape Town, South Africa."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Khoshelham, K., and D\u00edaz-Vilari\u00f1o, L. (2014, January 23\u201325). 3D Modeling of Interior Spaces: Learning the Language of Indoor Architecture. Riva del Garda, Italy.","DOI":"10.5194\/isprsarchives-XL-5-321-2014"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"915","DOI":"10.1016\/j.robot.2008.08.001","article-title":"Towards semantic maps for mobile robots","volume":"56","author":"Hertzberg","year":"2008","journal-title":"Robot. Auton. Syst."},{"key":"ref_11","first-page":"55","article-title":"Automated 3D reconstruction of interiors from point clouds","volume":"8","author":"Budroni","year":"2010","journal-title":"Int. J. Archit. Comput."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Adan, A., and Huber, D. (2011, January 16\u201319). 3D reconstruction of interior wall surfaces under occlusion and clutter. Hangzhou, China.","DOI":"10.1109\/3DIMPVT.2011.42"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16099","DOI":"10.3390\/s121216099","article-title":"Automatic Method for Building Indoor Boundary Models from Dense Point Clouds Collected by Laser Scanners","volume":"12","author":"Valero","year":"2012","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"640","DOI":"10.1016\/j.isprsjprs.2009.06.002","article-title":"Generation and application of rules for quality dependent fa\u00e7ade reconstruction","volume":"64","author":"Becker","year":"2009","journal-title":"ISPRS J. Photogramm. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_15","unstructured":"Khoshelham, K. (2007, January 12\u201314). Extending generalized Hough transform to detect 3D objects in laser range data. Espoo, Finland."},{"key":"ref_16","unstructured":"B\u00f6hm, J., Becker, S., and Haala, N. (2007, January 12\u201313). Model Refinement by Integrated Processing of Laser Scanning and Photogrammetry. Zurich, Switzerland."},{"key":"ref_17","unstructured":"Becker, S., and Haala, N. (2007, January 19\u201321). Refinement of Building Facades by Integrated Processing of LIDAR and Image Data. Munich, Germany."},{"key":"ref_18","unstructured":"Pu, S., and Vosselman, G. (2007, January 12\u201314). Extracting Windows from Terrestrial Laser Scanning. Espoo, Finland."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"119","DOI":"10.5194\/isprsannals-II-3-119-2014","article-title":"A flexible methodology for outdoor\/indoor building reconstruction from occluded point clouds","volume":"II-3","author":"Previtali","year":"2014","journal-title":"ISPRS Ann. Photogramm. Remote Sens. Spat. Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Demisse, G., Borrmann, D., and N\u00fcchter, A. (2013, January 25\u201329). Interpreting Thermal 3D Models of Indoor Environments for Energy Efficiency. Montevideo, Uruguay.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICAR.2013.6766550"},{"key":"ref_21","first-page":"309","article-title":"Semi-supervised incremental learning of hierarchical appearance models","volume":"37","author":"Wenzel","year":"2008","journal-title":"Int. Arch. Photogramm. Remote Sens. Spat. Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_22","first-page":"187","article-title":"Implicit shape models, self-diagnosis, and model selection for 3D fa\u00e7ade interpretation","volume":"3","author":"Reznik","year":"2008","journal-title":"Photogramm. Fernerkund. Geoinf."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"203","DOI":"10.5194\/isprsarchives-XL-5-203-2014","article-title":"Door recognition in cluttered building interiors using imagery and LiDAR data","volume":"XL-5","author":"Armesto","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. Arch. Photogramm. Remote Sens. Spat. Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"647","DOI":"10.1177\/0278364911434148","article-title":"RGB-D mapping: Using Kinect-style depth cameras for dense 3D modeling of indoor environments","volume":"31","author":"Henry","year":"2012","journal-title":"Int. J. Robot. Res."},{"key":"ref_25","first-page":"1437","article-title":"Accuracy and resolution of Kinect depth data for indoor mapping applications","volume":"12","author":"Khoshelham","year":"2012","journal-title":"Sens. J. Sci. Technol. Sens. Biosens."},{"key":"ref_26","first-page":"855","article-title":"Close-range camera calibration","volume":"37","author":"Brown","year":"1971","journal-title":"Photogramm. Eng."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"381","DOI":"10.14358\/PERS.79.4.381","article-title":"Automatic Camera Calibration in Close Range Photogrammetry","volume":"79","author":"Fraser","year":"2013","journal-title":"Photogramm. Eng. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_28","first-page":"948","article-title":"Terrestrial laserscanning and photogrammetry\u2014Acquisition techniques complementing one another","volume":"35","author":"Jansa","year":"2004","journal-title":"Int. Arch. Photogramm. Remote Sens. Spat. Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_29","first-page":"248","article-title":"Segmentation of point clouds using smoothness constraint","volume":"36","author":"Rabbani","year":"2006","journal-title":"Int. Arch. Photogramm. Remote Sens. Spat. Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103","DOI":"10.1111\/1467-8659.00482","article-title":"Smoothing normal vectors on discrete surfaces while preserving slope discontinuities","volume":"20","year":"2001","journal-title":"Comput. Graph. Forum"},{"key":"ref_31","unstructured":"Nielsen, M.O. (2004). True Orthophoto Generation. [Master Thesis, Technical University of Denmark]."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"155","DOI":"10.1145\/2601097.2601134","article-title":"Color Map Optimization for 3D Reconstruction with Consumer Depth Cameras","volume":"33","author":"Zhou","year":"2014","journal-title":"ACM Trans. Graph."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.5194\/isprsannals-II-5-9-2014","article-title":"Visibility analysis of point cloud in close range photogrammetry","volume":"II-5","author":"Alsadik","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. Ann. Photogramm. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Previtali, M., Barazzetti, L., and Scaioni, M. (2012, January 2\u20135). An automated and accurate procedure for texture mapping from images. Milan, Italy.","DOI":"10.1109\/VSMM.2012.6365984"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"74","DOI":"10.1145\/282918.282923","article-title":"Primitives for the manipulation of general subdivisions and the computation of Voronoi","volume":"4","author":"Guibas","year":"1985","journal-title":"ACM Trans. Graph."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Luhmann, T., Robson, S., Kyle, S., and Boehm, J. (2013). Close Range Photogrammetry and 3D Imaging, Walter De Gruyter.","DOI":"10.1515\/9783110302783"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liu, W., Shen, J., and Chen, W. (2009, January 17\u201319). Image mosaic technology based on overlapped area linear transition method. Tianjin, China.","DOI":"10.1109\/CISP.2009.5302055"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Davis, J., and Goadrich, M. (2006, January 25'29). The relationship between precision-recall and ROC curves. Pittsburgh, PA, USA.","DOI":"10.1145\/1143844.1143874"}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/15\/2\/3491\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T20:42:17Z","timestamp":1760215337000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/15\/2\/3491"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2015,2,3]]},"references-count":38,"journal-issue":{"issue":"2","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2015,2]]}},"alternative-id":["s150203491"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s150203491","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2015,2,3]]}}}