{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,24]],"date-time":"2026-07-24T22:18:07Z","timestamp":1784931487950,"version":"3.55.0"},"reference-count":79,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2015,2,5]],"date-time":"2015-02-05T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1423094400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Gold nanostars (AuNSs) are unique systems that can provide a novel multifunctional nanoplatform for molecular sensing and diagnostics. The plasmonic absorption band of AuNSs can be tuned to the near infrared spectral range, often referred to as the \u201ctissue optical window\u201d, where light exhibits minimal absorption and deep penetration in tissue. AuNSs have been applied for detecting disease biomarkers and for biomedical imaging using multi-modality methods including surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS), two-photon photoluminescence (TPL), magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), positron emission tomography (PET), and X-ray computer tomography (CT) imaging. In this paper, we provide an overview of the recent development of plasmonic AuNSs in our laboratory for biomedical applications and highlight their potential for future translational medicine as a multifunctional nanoplatform.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s150203706","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2015,2,5]],"date-time":"2015-02-05T10:54:42Z","timestamp":1423133682000},"page":"3706-3720","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":73,"title":["Plasmonic Gold Nanostars for Multi-Modality Sensing  and Diagnostics"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"given":"Yang","family":"Liu","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Fitzpatrick Institute for Photonics, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708, USA"},{"name":"Department of Biomedical Engineering, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708, USA"},{"name":"Department of Chemistry, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Hsiangkuo","family":"Yuan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Fitzpatrick Institute for Photonics, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708, USA"},{"name":"Department of Biomedical Engineering, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Farrell","family":"Kersey","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Radiology & Biomedical Research Imaging Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, NC 27510, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Janna","family":"Register","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Fitzpatrick Institute for Photonics, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708, USA"},{"name":"Department of Biomedical Engineering, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Matthew","family":"Parrott","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Radiology & Biomedical Research Imaging Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, NC 27510, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Tuan","family":"Vo-Dinh","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Fitzpatrick Institute for Photonics, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708, USA"},{"name":"Department of Biomedical Engineering, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708, USA"},{"name":"Department of Chemistry, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2015,2,5]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"27","DOI":"10.1007\/s00216-011-5631-x","article-title":"Surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SERS): Progress and trends","volume":"403","author":"Cialla","year":"2012","journal-title":"Anal. Bioanal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2049","DOI":"10.1002\/jrs.3115","article-title":"Recent advances in linear and nonlinear Raman spectroscopy. Part v","volume":"42","author":"Nafie","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Raman Spectrosc."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1279","DOI":"10.1002\/jcc.21709","article-title":"Electronic ground states and vibrational frequency shifts of diatomic ligands in Heme adducts","volume":"32","author":"Liu","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Comput. Chem."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"234","DOI":"10.1002\/jrs.4172","article-title":"Spectral characterization and intracellular detection of surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS)-encoded plasmonic gold nanostars","volume":"44","author":"Yuan","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Raman Spectrosc."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1135","DOI":"10.1007\/s00216-008-2521-y","article-title":"SERS-based plasmonic nanobiosensing in single living cells","volume":"393","author":"Scaffidi","year":"2009","journal-title":"Anal. Bioanal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1063","DOI":"10.1002\/dta.1612","article-title":"Direct analysis of traditional Chinese medicines using surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS)","volume":"6","author":"Zhao","year":"2014","journal-title":"Drug Test Anal."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"271","DOI":"10.1021\/ar00104a002","article-title":"Electromagnetic model for surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS) on metal colloids","volume":"17","author":"Kerker","year":"1984","journal-title":"Acc. Chem. Res."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5215","DOI":"10.1021\/ja00457a071","article-title":"Anomalously intense Raman-spectra of pyridine at a silver electrode","volume":"99","author":"Albrecht","year":"1977","journal-title":"J. Am. Chem. Soc."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"163","DOI":"10.1016\/0009-2614(74)85388-1","article-title":"Raman-spectra of pyridine adsorbed at a silver electrode","volume":"26","author":"Fleischmann","year":"1974","journal-title":"Chem. Phys. Lett."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1667","DOI":"10.1021\/ac00273a029","article-title":"Surface-enhanced Raman spectrometry for trace organic analysis","volume":"56","author":"Hiromoto","year":"1984","journal-title":"Anal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2149","DOI":"10.1021\/ac00144a030","article-title":"Surface-enhanced Raman-spectrometry of organophosphorus chemical-agents","volume":"59","author":"Alak","year":"1987","journal-title":"Anal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1779","DOI":"10.1021\/ac00190a600","article-title":"Titanium-dioxide based substrate for optical monitors in surface-enhanced Raman-scattering analysis","volume":"61","author":"Bello","year":"1989","journal-title":"Anal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1119","DOI":"10.1021\/ac00297a031","article-title":"Detection of nitro polynuclear aromatic-compounds by surface-enhanced Raman-spectrometry","volume":"58","author":"Enlow","year":"1986","journal-title":"Anal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18849","DOI":"10.1021\/jp8054747","article-title":"Gold nanostars for surface-enhanced Raman scattering: Synthesis, characterization and optimization","volume":"112","author":"Khoury","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Phys. Chem. C"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1843","DOI":"10.1021\/j100256a002","article-title":"Silver particles on stochastic quartz substrates providing tenfold increase in Raman enhancement","volume":"89","author":"Meier","year":"1985","journal-title":"J. Phys. Chem."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"292","DOI":"10.1366\/000370204322886636","article-title":"Surface-enhanced-Raman-scattering-inducing nanoprobe for spectrochemical analysis","volume":"58","author":"Stokes","year":"2004","journal-title":"Appl. Spectrosc."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7480","DOI":"10.1021\/jp911355q","article-title":"Plasmonic nanoparticles and nanowires: Design, fabrication and application in sensing","volume":"114","author":"Dhawan","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Phys. Chem. C"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3379","DOI":"10.1021\/ac00092a014","article-title":"Surface-enhanced Raman gene probes","volume":"66","author":"Houck","year":"1994","journal-title":"Anal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"89","DOI":"10.1002\/jbio.200910015","article-title":"Plasmonic nanoprobes for SERS biosensing and bioimaging","volume":"3","author":"Wang","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Biophotonics"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7810","DOI":"10.1021\/ac0514671","article-title":"Detection of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 DNA sequence using plasmonics nanoprobes","volume":"77","author":"Wabuyele","year":"2005","journal-title":"Anal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4703","DOI":"10.1021\/ac970657b","article-title":"Selective detection of deoxyribonucleic acid at ultralow concentrations by SERRS","volume":"69","author":"Graham","year":"1997","journal-title":"Anal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1667","DOI":"10.1103\/PhysRevLett.78.1667","article-title":"Single molecule detection using surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS)","volume":"78","author":"Kneipp","year":"1997","journal-title":"Phys. Rev. Lett."},{"key":"ref_23","first-page":"557","article-title":"Surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy using metallic nanostructures","volume":"17","year":"1998","journal-title":"TrAC-Trend. Anal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"370","DOI":"10.1021\/ar00106a005","article-title":"Theoretical studies of surface enhanced Raman scattering","volume":"17","author":"Schatz","year":"1984","journal-title":"Acc. Chem. Res."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"783","DOI":"10.1103\/RevModPhys.57.783","article-title":"Surface-enhanced spectroscopy","volume":"57","author":"Moskovits","year":"1985","journal-title":"Rev. Mod. Phys."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10127","DOI":"10.1039\/c3nr03633b","article-title":"Plasmonic nanoprobes: From chemical sensing to medical diagnostics and therapy","volume":"5","author":"Fales","year":"2013","journal-title":"Nanoscale"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"980","DOI":"10.1002\/jrs.4302","article-title":"pH-sensing nanostar probe using surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS): Theoretical and experimental studies","volume":"44","author":"Liu","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Raman Spectrosc."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1102","DOI":"10.1126\/science.275.5303.1102","article-title":"Probing single molecules and single nanoparticles by surface-enhanced Raman scattering","volume":"275","author":"Nie","year":"1997","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yuan, H., Khoury, C.G., Hwang, H., Wilson, C.M., Grant, G.A., and Vo-Dinh, T. (2012). Gold nanostars: Surfactant-free synthesis, 3D modelling, and two-photon photoluminescence imaging. Nanotechnology, 23.","DOI":"10.1088\/0957-4484\/23\/7\/075102"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"316","DOI":"10.1038\/86684","article-title":"A clearer vision for in vivo imaging","volume":"19","author":"Weissleder","year":"2001","journal-title":"Nat. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11358","DOI":"10.1021\/ja304180y","article-title":"TAT peptide-functionalized gold nanostars: Enhanced intracellular delivery and efficient NIR photothermal therapy using ultralow irradiance","volume":"134","author":"Yuan","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Am. Chem. Soc."},{"key":"ref_32","unstructured":"Yuan, H., Khoury, C.G., Fales, A., Wilson, C., Grant, G., and Vo-Dinh, T. (May, January 28). Plasmonic gold nanostars: A potential agent for molecular imaging and cancer therapy. Miami, FL, USA."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1355","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nano.2012.02.005","article-title":"In vivo particle tracking and photothermal ablation using plasmon-resonant gold nanostars","volume":"8","author":"Yuan","year":"2012","journal-title":"Nanomed. NBM"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"208","DOI":"10.1021\/ac302510g","article-title":"Quantitative surface-enhanced resonant Raman scattering multiplexing of biocompatible gold nanostars for in vitro and ex vivo detection","volume":"85","author":"Yuan","year":"2013","journal-title":"Anal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6165","DOI":"10.1007\/s00216-013-6975-1","article-title":"Plasmonic nanoprobes for intracellular sensing and imaging","volume":"405","author":"Yuan","year":"2013","journal-title":"Anal. Bioanal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4078","DOI":"10.1039\/C3NR06770J","article-title":"Plasmonics-enhanced and optically modulated delivery of gold nanostars into brain tumor","volume":"6","author":"Yuan","year":"2014","journal-title":"Nanoscale"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12126","DOI":"10.1039\/c3nr03762b","article-title":"Quintuple-modality (SERS-MRI-CT-TPL -PTT) plasmonic nanoprobe for theranostics","volume":"5","author":"Liu","year":"2013","journal-title":"Nanoscale"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2893","DOI":"10.1002\/ijc.25516","article-title":"Estimates of worldwide burden of cancer in 2008: Globocan 2008","volume":"127","author":"Ferlay","year":"2010","journal-title":"Int. J. Cancer"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1225","DOI":"10.1517\/17425247.2012.716824","article-title":"Gold nanoparticles in theranostic oncology: Current state-of-the-art","volume":"9","author":"Akhter","year":"2012","journal-title":"Expert Opin. Drug Deliv."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"45","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jconrel.2012.05.051","article-title":"Nanotechnology applied to overcome tumor drug resistance","volume":"162","author":"Gao","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Control. Release"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"42","DOI":"10.1016\/j.addr.2013.09.006","article-title":"Multifunctional nanoparticles for brain tumor imaging and therapy","volume":"66","author":"Cheng","year":"2014","journal-title":"Adv. Drug Deliv. Rev."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2052","DOI":"10.1002\/smll.201100927","article-title":"Tumor targeting and imaging using cyclic RGD-pegylated gold nanoparticle probes with directly conjugated iodine-125","volume":"7","author":"Kim","year":"2011","journal-title":"Small"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5696","DOI":"10.1021\/nn500299p","article-title":"Investigating the impact of nanoparticle size on active and passive tumor targeting efficiency","volume":"8","author":"Sykes","year":"2014","journal-title":"ACS Nano"},{"key":"ref_44","first-page":"3992","article-title":"Highly sensitive SERS-based immunoassay with simultaneous utilization of self-assembled substrates of gold nanostars and aggregates of gold nanostars","volume":"1","author":"Pei","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Mater. Chem."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1873","DOI":"10.1021\/am200057f","article-title":"A reproducible SERS substrate based on electrostatically assisted APTES-functionalized surface-assembly of gold nanostars","volume":"3","author":"Su","year":"2011","journal-title":"ACS Appl. Mater. Inter."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"22198","DOI":"10.1021\/jp312149d","article-title":"Synthesis of gold nanostar arrays as reliable, large-scale, homogeneous substrates for surface-enhanced Raman scattering imaging and spectroscopy","volume":"117","author":"Osinkina","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Phys. Chem. C"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2841","DOI":"10.1039\/c0jm04194g","article-title":"In vivo photoacoustic mapping of lymphatic systems with plasmon-resonant nanostars","volume":"21","author":"Kim","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Mater. Chem."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"922","DOI":"10.1039\/c1ib00029b","article-title":"Intracellular mapping with SERS-encoded gold nanostars","volume":"3","author":"Krpetic","year":"2011","journal-title":"Integr. Biol."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4216","DOI":"10.1039\/c0cc05229a","article-title":"Hydrophilically stabilized gold nanostars as SERS labels for tissue imaging of the tumor suppressor p63 by immuno-SERS microscopy","volume":"47","author":"Schutz","year":"2011","journal-title":"Chem. Commun."},{"key":"ref_50","first-page":"4373","article-title":"Acid pH in tumors and its potential for therapeutic exploitation","volume":"49","author":"Tannock","year":"1989","journal-title":"Cancer Res."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"582","DOI":"10.1002\/nbm.1644","article-title":"Imaging pH and metastasis","volume":"24","author":"Hashim","year":"2011","journal-title":"NMR Biomed."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5804","DOI":"10.1039\/C4PY00646A","article-title":"Rhodamine based pH-sensitive \u201cintelligent\u201d polymers as lysosome targeting probes and their imaging applications in vivo","volume":"5","author":"Yu","year":"2014","journal-title":"Polym. Chem."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"325","DOI":"10.1002\/lpor.200810012","article-title":"Raman spectroscopy and microscopy of individual cells and cellular components","volume":"2","author":"Chan","year":"2008","journal-title":"Laser Photonics Rev."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21","DOI":"10.1002\/jrs.928","article-title":"Surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS) of 4-mercaptobenzoic acid on silver and gold substrates","volume":"34","author":"Michota","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Raman Spectrosc."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"618","DOI":"10.1002\/smll.200901893","article-title":"Mapping local pH in live cells using encapsulated fluorescent SERS nanotags","volume":"6","author":"Pallaoro","year":"2010","journal-title":"Small"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1751-1097.2008.00507.x","article-title":"Gold nanorods as contrast agents for biological imaging: Optical properties, surface conjugation and photothermal effects","volume":"85","author":"Tong","year":"2009","journal-title":"Photochem. Photobiol."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liu, Y., Li, F., and Sun, H. (2014). Thermal decomposition of FOX-7 studied by ab initio molecular dynamics simulations. Theor. Chem. Acc., 133.","DOI":"10.1007\/s00214-014-1567-5"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fluid.2009.07.023","article-title":"Prediction of partition coefficients and infinite dilution activity coefficients of 1-ethylpropylamine and 3-methyl-1-pentanol using force field methods","volume":"285","author":"Liu","year":"2009","journal-title":"Fluid Phase Equilibria."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Xie, J.-H., Zhou, L., Zavalij, P., Doyle, M.P., Sun, Y., Liu, Y., and Sun, H. (2009). Conformational isomers of extraordinary stability: Carboxamidate-bridged dimetalloorganic compounds. Chem. Commun.","DOI":"10.1039\/b904095a"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2469","DOI":"10.1021\/jp710217p","article-title":"Electrostatic and covalent contributions in the coordination bonds of transition metal complexes","volume":"112","author":"Xiong","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Phys. Chem. A"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2819","DOI":"10.1021\/nl071418z","article-title":"One- and two-photon excited optical pH probing for cells using surface-enhanced Raman and hyper-Raman nanosensors","volume":"7","author":"Kneipp","year":"2007","journal-title":"Nano Lett."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1515","DOI":"10.18632\/oncotarget.1765","article-title":"Mutations in IDH1, IDH2, and in the TERT promoter define clinically distinct subgroups of adult malignant gliomas","volume":"5","author":"Killela","year":"2014","journal-title":"Oncotarget"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"744","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nano.2011.02.008","article-title":"Could nanoparticle systems have a role in the treatment of cerebral gliomas?","volume":"7","author":"Caruso","year":"2011","journal-title":"Nanomed. NBM"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"54","DOI":"10.1016\/j.drudis.2006.10.013","article-title":"Blood\u2013brain barrier delivery","volume":"12","author":"Pardridge","year":"2007","journal-title":"Drug Discov. Today"},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"463","DOI":"10.1002\/wnan.5","article-title":"Polyalkylcyanoacrylate nanoparticles for delivery of drugs across the blood-brain barrier","volume":"1","author":"Andrieux","year":"2009","journal-title":"WIREs Nanomed. Nanobiotechnol."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"H136","DOI":"10.1002\/adma.201004714","article-title":"Nanoscale materials for tackling brain cancer: Recent progress and outlook","volume":"23","author":"Rozhkova","year":"2011","journal-title":"Adv. Mater."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"307","DOI":"10.1038\/nrneurol.2012.76","article-title":"Nanotechnology-novel therapeutics for CNS disorders","volume":"8","author":"Srikanth","year":"2012","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8662","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1307152110","article-title":"Transcytosis and brain uptake of transferrin-containing nanoparticles by tuning avidity to transferrin receptor","volume":"110","author":"Wiley","year":"2013","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18837","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1111405108","article-title":"Nanoparticles enhance brain delivery of blood-brain barrier-impermeable probes for in vivo optical and magnetic resonance imaging","volume":"108","author":"Koffie","year":"2011","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"410","DOI":"10.1021\/nn203749v","article-title":"Two-order targeted brain tumor imaging by using an optical\/paramagnetic nanoprobe across the blood brain barrier","volume":"6","author":"Yan","year":"2012","journal-title":"ACS Nano"},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"421","DOI":"10.1002\/wnan.143","article-title":"Overcoming in vivo barriers to targeted nanodelivery","volume":"3","author":"Chrastina","year":"2011","journal-title":"WIREs Nanomed. Nanobiotechnol."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"299","DOI":"10.2217\/nnm.13.3","article-title":"Biotargeted nanomedicines for cancer: Six tenets before you begin","volume":"8","author":"Goldberg","year":"2013","journal-title":"Nanomedicine"},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1647","DOI":"10.1039\/C0CS00018C","article-title":"Biodistribution and toxicity of engineered gold nanoparticles: A review of in vitro and in vivo studies","volume":"40","author":"Khlebtsov","year":"2011","journal-title":"Chem. Soc. Rev."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11153","DOI":"10.1039\/c3nr02905k","article-title":"Nanoparticle accumulation and transcytosis in brain endothelial cell layers","volume":"5","author":"Ye","year":"2013","journal-title":"Nanoscale"},{"key":"ref_75","first-page":"3352","article-title":"Microvascular permeability and interstitial penetration of sterically stabilized (stealth) liposomes in a human tumor xenograft","volume":"54","author":"Yuan","year":"1994","journal-title":"Cancer Res."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8649","DOI":"10.1002\/anie.201003142","article-title":"A nanoparticle size series for in vivo fluorescence imaging","volume":"49","author":"Popovic","year":"2010","journal-title":"Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. Engl."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3779","DOI":"10.1002\/adma.201200653","article-title":"Hybrid nanoparticles for detection and treatment of cancer","volume":"24","author":"Sailor","year":"2012","journal-title":"Adv. Mater."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6421","DOI":"10.1118\/1.3515456","article-title":"In vivo small animal imaging: Current status and future prospects","volume":"37","author":"Kagadis","year":"2010","journal-title":"Med. Phys."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"121","DOI":"10.2217\/nnm.13.191","article-title":"Shaping cancer nanomedicine: The effect of particle shape on the in vivo journey of nanoparticles","volume":"9","author":"Toy","year":"2014","journal-title":"Nanomedicine"}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/15\/2\/3706\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T20:42:22Z","timestamp":1760215342000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/15\/2\/3706"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2015,2,5]]},"references-count":79,"journal-issue":{"issue":"2","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2015,2]]}},"alternative-id":["s150203706"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s150203706","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2015,2,5]]}}}