{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,25]],"date-time":"2026-03-25T22:07:05Z","timestamp":1774476425565,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":20,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2015,2,25]],"date-time":"2015-02-25T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1424822400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Spanish government","award":["TEC2012-38921-C02 MINECO (FEDER)"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["TEC2012-38921-C02 MINECO (FEDER)"]}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100010801","name":"Xunta de Galicia","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["EM2013\/038"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["EM2013\/038"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100010801","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100010801","name":"Xunta de Galicia","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["EM2014\/012"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["EM2014\/012"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100010801","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100010801","name":"Xunta de Galicia","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["AE CITIUS (CN2012\/151, (FEDER))"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["AE CITIUS (CN2012\/151, (FEDER))"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100010801","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100010801","name":"Xunta de Galicia","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["GPC2013\/040 (FEDER)"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["GPC2013\/040 (FEDER)"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100010801","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Unlike other noise sources, which can be reduced or eliminated by different signal processing techniques, shot noise is an ever-present noise component in any imaging system. In this paper, we present an in-depth study of the impact of shot noise on time-of-flight sensors in terms of the error introduced in the distance estimation. The paper addresses the effect of parameters, such as the size of the photosensor, the background and signal power or the integration time, and the resulting design trade-offs. The study is demonstrated with different numerical examples, which show that, in general, the phase shift determination technique with two background measurements approach is the most suitable for pixel arrays of large resolution.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s150304624","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2015,2,25]],"date-time":"2015-02-25T05:28:04Z","timestamp":1424842084000},"page":"4624-4642","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":34,"title":["Distance Measurement Error in Time-of-Flight Sensors Due to Shot Noise"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"given":"Julio","family":"Illade-Quinteiro","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Centro de Investigaci\u00f3n en Tecnolox\u00edas da Informaci\u00f3n (CITIUS), University of Santiago de Compostela, 15782-Santiago de Compostela, Spain"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"V\u00edctor","family":"Brea","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centro de Investigaci\u00f3n en Tecnolox\u00edas da Informaci\u00f3n (CITIUS), University of Santiago de Compostela, 15782-Santiago de Compostela, Spain"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Paula","family":"L\u00f3pez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centro de Investigaci\u00f3n en Tecnolox\u00edas da Informaci\u00f3n (CITIUS), University of Santiago de Compostela, 15782-Santiago de Compostela, Spain"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Diego","family":"Cabello","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centro de Investigaci\u00f3n en Tecnolox\u00edas da Informaci\u00f3n (CITIUS), University of Santiago de Compostela, 15782-Santiago de Compostela, Spain"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Gines","family":"Dom\u00e9nech-Asensi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electronics, Computer Technologies and Projects, Universidad Polit\u00e9cnica de Cartagena, 30202-Cartagena, Spain"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2015,2,25]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Remondino, F., and Stoppa, D. (2013). ToF Range-Imaging Cameras, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-642-27523-4"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"390","DOI":"10.1109\/3.910448","article-title":"Solid State time-of-flight camera","volume":"37","author":"Lange","year":"2001","journal-title":"IEEE J. Quantum Electron"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2131","DOI":"10.1109\/16.544384","article-title":"Technology and device scaling considerations for CMOS imagers","volume":"43","author":"Wong","year":"1996","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Electron Devices"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"262","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sna.2014.09.022","article-title":"Temperature-compensated capacitancefrequency converter with high resolution","volume":"220","author":"Matko","year":"2014","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators A Phys"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1401","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sse.2008.04.012","article-title":"CMOS image sensors: State-of-the-art","volume":"52","author":"Theuwissen","year":"2008","journal-title":"Solid State Electron"},{"key":"ref_6","first-page":"1272","article-title":"A three-dimensional time-of-flight CMOS image sensor with pinned-photodiode pixel structure","volume":"31","author":"Kim","year":"2010","journal-title":"IEEE Electron Device Lett"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"248","DOI":"10.1109\/JSSC.2010.2085870","article-title":"A range image sensor based on 10-\u03bcm lock-in pixels in 0.18 \u03bcm CMOS imaging technology","volume":"46","author":"Stoppa","year":"2011","journal-title":"IEEE J. Solid State Circuits"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Oh, M.S., Kong, H.K., Lee, H.S., Kim, K.I., Bae, K.H., Kim, S.B., Kim, S.K., Lim, M.S., Ahn, J.C., and Kim, T.C. (2012, January 17\u201320). Backside-illumination 14 \u03bcm pixel QVGA time-of-flight CMOS imager. Montreal, QC, Canada.","DOI":"10.1109\/NEWCAS.2012.6329022"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2834","DOI":"10.1109\/JSSC.2012.2214179","article-title":"A CMOS image sensor based on unified pixel architecture with time-division multiplexing scheme for color and depth image acquisition","volume":"47","author":"Kim","year":"2012","journal-title":"IEEE J. Solid State Circuits"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1345","DOI":"10.1109\/JSSC.2010.2048075","article-title":"A 16 \u00d7 16 pixel distance sensor with in-pixel circuitry that tolerates 150 klux of ambient light","volume":"45","author":"Zach","year":"2010","journal-title":"IEEE J. Solid State Circuits"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1578","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2007.907561","article-title":"A CMOS time-of-flight range image sensor with gates-on-field-oxide structure","volume":"7","author":"Kawahito","year":"2007","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1672","DOI":"10.1109\/JSSC.2011.2144130","article-title":"A 160 \u00d7 120-pixels range camera with in-pixel correlated double sampling and fixed-pattern noise correction","volume":"46","author":"Perenzoni","year":"2011","journal-title":"IEEE J. Solid State Circuits"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kim, M., Yibing, W., Ovsiannikov, I., Lee, S., Park, Y., Chung, C., and Fossum, E. (2012, January 19\u201323). A 1.5Mpixel RGBZ CMOS image sensor for simultaneous color and range image capture. San Francisco, CA, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/ISSCC.2012.6177061"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Spickermann, A., Durini, D., Brocker, S., Brokherde, W., Hosticka, B.J., and Grabmaier, A. (2009, January 14\u201318). Pulsed time-of-flight 3D-CMOS imaging using photogate-based active pixel sensors. Athens, Greece.","DOI":"10.1109\/ESSCIRC.2009.5325991"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2320","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2012.2187350","article-title":"Depth resolution enhancement technique for CMOS time-of-flight 3-D image sensor","volume":"12","author":"Hafiane","year":"2012","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Davidovic, M., Zach, G., Schneider-Hornstein, K., and Zimmermann, H. (2010, January 1\u20134). TOF range finding sensor in 90 nm CMOS capable of suppressing 180 klux ambient light. Kona, HI, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICSENS.2010.5690996"},{"key":"ref_17","unstructured":"Personal Eye-Protection (1999). Filters and Eye-Protectors against Laser Radiation (Laser Eye-Protectors), BSI."},{"key":"ref_18","unstructured":"Ohta, J. (2008). Smart CMOS Image Sensors and Applications, CRC Press. [1st ed.]."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1917","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2010.2101060","article-title":"Lock-in time-of-flight (ToF) cameras: A survey","volume":"11","author":"Foix","year":"2011","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Koklu, G., Etienne-Cummings, R., Leblebici, Y., De Micheli, G., and Carrara, S. (2013, January 19\u201323). Characterization of standard CMOS compatible photodiodes and pixels for lab-on-chip devices. Beijing, China.","DOI":"10.1109\/ISCAS.2013.6572036"}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/15\/3\/4624\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T20:42:55Z","timestamp":1760215375000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/15\/3\/4624"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2015,2,25]]},"references-count":20,"journal-issue":{"issue":"3","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2015,3]]}},"alternative-id":["s150304624"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s150304624","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2015,2,25]]}}}