{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,12]],"date-time":"2025-10-12T04:23:33Z","timestamp":1760243013282,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":18,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2015,4,8]],"date-time":"2015-04-08T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1428451200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The impact wave response of soil due to a ball drop is monitored on a 30.5 cm by 30.5 cm square soil box using a fiber sensor with dynamic strain sensing capability.  The experiments are conducted in real time using a simple one-laser one-modulator configuration with stimulated Brillouin scattering. The embedded BOTDA sensor grid successfully monitored the distribution and evolution of the inner strains of a sand bed during a mass impact on its surface. The measurement of the distributed dynamic strains was possible in several milliseconds and with 1 cm actual location resolution. This paper presents a time-domain signal analysis utilized for determining the dynamic strains in embedded fiber sensor. The results demonstrate the method to be a promising one for detection of subsurface vibration and movement in geotechnical Structure Health Monitoring (SHM).<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s150408163","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2015,4,8]],"date-time":"2015-04-08T11:23:46Z","timestamp":1428492226000},"page":"8163-8172","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":7,"title":["Impact Wave Monitoring in Soil Using a Dynamic Fiber Sensor Based on Stimulated Brillouin Scattering"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"given":"Qingsong","family":"Cui","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"National Key Laboratory of Science and Technology on Tunable Laser, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin 150001, China"},{"name":"Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Lehigh University, Bethlehem, PA 18015, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Sibel","family":"Pamukcu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Lehigh University, Bethlehem, PA 18015, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Mesut","family":"Pervizpour","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Lehigh University, Bethlehem, PA 18015, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2015,4,8]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dong, Y., Bao, X., and Chen, L. (2011). Online monitoring of the distributed lateral displacement in large AC power generators using a high spatial resolution brillouin optical fiber sensor. Smart Mater. Struct., 20.","DOI":"10.1088\/0964-1726\/20\/11\/115001"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1286","DOI":"10.1109\/36.927451","article-title":"Subsurface discrimination using electromagnetic induction sensors","volume":"39","author":"Bell","year":"2001","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"669","DOI":"10.1016\/j.adhoc.2006.04.003","article-title":"Wireless underground sensor networks: Research challenges","volume":"4","author":"Akyildiz","year":"2006","journal-title":"Ad Hoc Netw."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4297","DOI":"10.1364\/AO.48.004297","article-title":"Differential brillouin gain for improving the temperature accuracy and spatial resolution in a long-distance distributed fiber sensor","volume":"48","author":"Dong","year":"2009","journal-title":"Appl. Opt."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1229","DOI":"10.1364\/AO.51.001229","article-title":"2 cm spatial-resolution and 2 km range brillouin optical fiber sensor using a transient differential pulse pair","volume":"51","author":"Dong","year":"2012","journal-title":"Appl. Opt."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"45","DOI":"10.1006\/ofte.2000.0344","article-title":"Industrial applications of the botdr optical fiber strain sensor","volume":"7","author":"Ohno","year":"2001","journal-title":"Opt. Fiber Technol."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1296","DOI":"10.1109\/50.400684","article-title":"Development of a distributed sensing technique using brillouin scattering: Optical fiber sensors","volume":"13","author":"Horiguchi","year":"1995","journal-title":"J. Light. Technol."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"26510","DOI":"10.1364\/OE.22.026510","article-title":"Characterization of evolution of mode coupling in a graded-index polymer optical fiber by using brillouin optical time-domain analysis","volume":"22","author":"Dong","year":"2014","journal-title":"Opt. Express"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2967","DOI":"10.1364\/OL.39.002967","article-title":"Sub-MHz ultrahigh-resolution optical spectrometry based on brillouin dynamic gratings","volume":"39","author":"Dong","year":"2014","journal-title":"Opt. Lett."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1698","DOI":"10.1109\/50.964070","article-title":"Tensile and compressive strain measurement in the lab and field with the distributed brillouin scattering sensor","volume":"19","author":"Bao","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Light. Technol."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"234","DOI":"10.1109\/50.744230","article-title":"Technique for measuring the dynamic strain on an optical fiber based on brillouin ring amplification","volume":"17","author":"Ogawa","year":"1999","journal-title":"J. Light. Technol."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"272","DOI":"10.1109\/LPT.2002.806107","article-title":"Distributed dynamic strain measurement using a correlation-based brillouin sensing system","volume":"15","author":"Hotate","year":"2003","journal-title":"Photonics Technol. Lett. IEEE"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pamukcu, S., Cetisli, F., Texier, S., Naito, C., and Toulouse, J. (March, January 26). Dynamic strains with brillouin scattering distributed fiber optic sensor. Proceedings of the GeoCongress 2006: Geotechnical Engineering in the Information Technology Age, Atlanta, GA, USA.","DOI":"10.1061\/40803(187)31"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19845","DOI":"10.1364\/OE.19.019845","article-title":"Slope-assisted fast distributed sensing in optical fibers with arbitrary brillouin profile","volume":"19","author":"Peled","year":"2011","journal-title":"Opt. Express"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2613","DOI":"10.1364\/OL.34.002613","article-title":"Dynamic strain measurement in optical fibers by stimulated brillouin scattering","volume":"34","author":"Bernini","year":"2009","journal-title":"Opt. Lett."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1887","DOI":"10.1109\/LPT.2011.2170968","article-title":"Truly distributed fiber vibration sensor using pulse base botda with wide dynamic range","volume":"23","author":"Cui","year":"2011","journal-title":"IEEE Photonics Technol. Lett."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3770","DOI":"10.1364\/AO.52.003770","article-title":"Real-time monitoring of railway traffic using slope-assisted brillouin distributed sensors","volume":"52","author":"Minardo","year":"2013","journal-title":"Appl. Opt."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2565","DOI":"10.1364\/OL.32.002565","article-title":"Tensile strain dependence of the brillouin gain spectrum in carbon\/polyimide coated fibers","volume":"32","author":"Zhang","year":"2007","journal-title":"Opt. Lett."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/15\/4\/8163\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T20:44:25Z","timestamp":1760215465000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/15\/4\/8163"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2015,4,8]]},"references-count":18,"journal-issue":{"issue":"4","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2015,4]]}},"alternative-id":["s150408163"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s150408163","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"1424-8220"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2015,4,8]]}}}