{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,17]],"date-time":"2026-01-17T19:06:39Z","timestamp":1768676799818,"version":"3.49.0"},"reference-count":49,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"6","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2015,5,26]],"date-time":"2015-05-26T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1432598400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Strategic Priority Research Program - Climate Change: Carbon Budget and Related Issues","award":["XDA05050108"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["XDA05050108"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Topography affects forest canopy height retrieval based on airborne Light Detection and Ranging (LiDAR) data a lot. This paper proposes a method for correcting deviations caused by topography based on individual tree crown segmentation. The point cloud of an individual tree was extracted according to crown boundaries of isolated individual trees from digital orthophoto maps (DOMs). Normalized canopy height was calculated by subtracting the elevation of centres of gravity from the elevation of point cloud. First, individual tree crown boundaries are obtained by carrying out segmentation on the DOM. Second, point clouds of the individual trees are extracted based on the boundaries. Third, precise DEM is derived from the point cloud which is classified by a multi-scale curvature classification algorithm. Finally, a height weighted correction method is applied to correct the topological effects. The method is applied to LiDAR data acquired in South China, and its effectiveness is tested using 41 field survey plots. The results show that the terrain impacts the canopy height of individual trees in that the downslope side of the tree trunk is elevated and the upslope side is depressed. This further affects the extraction of the location and crown of individual trees. A strong correlation was detected between the slope gradient and the proportions of returns with height differences more than 0.3, 0.5 and 0.8 m in the total returns, with coefficient of determination R2 of 0.83, 0.76, and 0.60 (n = 41), respectively.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s150612133","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2015,5,26]],"date-time":"2015-05-26T11:07:05Z","timestamp":1432638425000},"page":"12133-12155","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":33,"title":["Assessing and Correcting Topographic Effects on Forest Canopy Height Retrieval Using Airborne LiDAR Data"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"given":"Zhugeng","family":"Duan","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Digital Earth Science, Institute of Remote Sensing and Digital Earth (RADI), Chinese Academy of Science, Haidian District, Beijing 100094, China"},{"name":"School of GeoSciences and Info-Physics, Central South University, Changsha 410083, China"},{"name":"School of Sciences, Central South University of Forestry and Technology, Changsha 410004, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Dan","family":"Zhao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Digital Earth Science, Institute of Remote Sensing and Digital Earth (RADI), Chinese Academy of Science, Haidian District, Beijing 100094, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Yuan","family":"Zeng","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Digital Earth Science, Institute of Remote Sensing and Digital Earth (RADI), Chinese Academy of Science, Haidian District, Beijing 100094, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Yujin","family":"Zhao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Digital Earth Science, Institute of Remote Sensing and Digital Earth (RADI), Chinese Academy of Science, Haidian District, Beijing 100094, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5546-365X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Bingfang","family":"Wu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Digital Earth Science, Institute of Remote Sensing and Digital Earth (RADI), Chinese Academy of Science, Haidian District, Beijing 100094, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Jianjun","family":"Zhu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of GeoSciences and Info-Physics, Central South University, Changsha 410083, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2015,5,26]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"403","DOI":"10.1177\/0309133309342643","article-title":"Supporting large-area, sample-based forest inventories with very high spatial resolution satellite imagery","volume":"33","author":"Falkowski","year":"2009","journal-title":"Prog. Phys. Geogr."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"41","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foreco.2005.05.034","article-title":"Identifying and quantifying structural characteristics of heterogeneous boreal forests using laser scanner data","volume":"216","author":"Maltamo","year":"2005","journal-title":"Forest Ecol. Manag."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"328","DOI":"10.1016\/S0034-4257(01)00228-0","article-title":"Estimating tree heights and number of stems in young forest stands using airborne laser scanner data","volume":"78","author":"Bjerknes","year":"2001","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"776","DOI":"10.3390\/rs1040776","article-title":"Discrete return LiDAR in natural resources: recommendations for project planning, data processing, and deliverables","volume":"1","author":"Evans","year":"2009","journal-title":"Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"135","DOI":"10.1007\/s10310-004-0125-8","article-title":"Estimating individual tree heights of sugi (Cryptomeria japonica D. Don) plantations in mountainous areas using small-footprint airborne LiDAR","volume":"10","author":"Takahashi","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Forest Res."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"331","DOI":"10.14358\/PERS.70.3.331","article-title":"Accuracy of airborne LiDAR-derived elevation: Empirical assessment and error budget","volume":"70","author":"Hodgson","year":"2004","journal-title":"Photogramm. Eng. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"139","DOI":"10.1093\/forestscience\/56.2.139","article-title":"Challenges to estimating tree height via LiDAR in closed-canopy forests: a parable from western Oregon","volume":"56","author":"Gatziolis","year":"2010","journal-title":"Forest Sci."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1511","DOI":"10.1080\/01431160701736364","article-title":"Quantifying the influence of slope, aspect, crown shape and stem density on the estimation of tree height at plot level using LiDAR and InSAR data","volume":"29","author":"Breidenbach","year":"2008","journal-title":"Int. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"69","DOI":"10.14358\/PERS.71.1.69","article-title":"Augmenting grid-based contours to improve thin plate DEM generation","volume":"71","author":"Gousie","year":"2005","journal-title":"Photogramm. Eng. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"701","DOI":"10.14358\/PERS.76.6.701","article-title":"Effects of topographic variability and LiDAR sampling density on several DEM interpolation methods","volume":"76","author":"Guo","year":"2010","journal-title":"Photogramm. Eng. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"193","DOI":"10.1016\/S0924-2716(98)00009-4","article-title":"Determination of terrain models in wooded areas with airborne laser scanner data","volume":"53","author":"Kraus","year":"1998","journal-title":"ISPRS J. Photogramm."},{"key":"ref_12","first-page":"219","article-title":"Terrain modelling and analysis using laser scanner data","volume":"34","author":"Elmqvist","year":"2001","journal-title":"ISPRS Arch."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2006.10.013","article-title":"Repetitive interpolation: A robust algorithm for DTM generation from Aerial Laser Scanner Data in forested terrain","volume":"108","author":"Kobler","year":"2007","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"138","DOI":"10.1016\/S0924-2716(99)00008-8","article-title":"Processing of laser scanner data\u2014Algorithms and applications","volume":"54","author":"Axelsson","year":"1991","journal-title":"ISPRS J. Photogramm."},{"key":"ref_15","first-page":"935","article-title":"Slope based filtering of laser altimetry data","volume":"33","author":"Vosselman","year":"2000","journal-title":"ISPRS Arch."},{"key":"ref_16","first-page":"203","article-title":"Filtering of laser altimetry data using a slope adaptive filter","volume":"34","author":"Sithole","year":"2001","journal-title":"ISPRS Arch."},{"key":"ref_17","first-page":"109","article-title":"Airborne LiDAR data processing and information extraction","volume":"73","author":"Chen","year":"2007","journal-title":"Photogramm. Eng. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1029","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2006.890412","article-title":"A multiscale curvature algorithm for classifying discrete return LiDAR in forested environments","volume":"45","author":"Evans","year":"2007","journal-title":"IEEE. Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"646","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biombioe.2007.06.022","article-title":"Estimating biomass of individual pine trees using airborne LiDAR","volume":"31","author":"Popescu","year":"2007","journal-title":"Biomass Bioenergy"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4261","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2008.07.007","article-title":"Scaling-based forest structural change detection using an inverted geometric-optical model in the three gorges region of china","volume":"112","author":"Zeng","year":"2008","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"633","DOI":"10.5589\/m03-024","article-title":"Combined high-density LiDAR and multispectral imagery for individual tree crown analysis","volume":"29","author":"Leckie","year":"2003","journal-title":"Can. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"658","DOI":"10.5589\/m03-025","article-title":"LiDAR remote sensing of biophysical properties of tolerant northern hardwood forests","volume":"29","author":"Lim","year":"2003","journal-title":"Can. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3049","DOI":"10.1080\/01431160310001657786","article-title":"Quantifying the spatial properties of forest canopy gaps using LiDAR imagery and GIS","volume":"25","author":"Koukoulas","year":"2004","journal-title":"Int. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3079","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2008.03.004","article-title":"Estimation of above-and below-ground biomass across regions of the boreal forest zone using airborne laser","volume":"112","author":"Gobakken","year":"2008","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/0034-4257(95)00224-3","article-title":"Estimation of tree heights and stand volume using an airborne LiDAR system","volume":"56","author":"Nilsson","year":"1996","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"270","DOI":"10.5589\/m09-014","article-title":"Aboveground large tree mass estimation in a coastal forest in British Columbia using plot-level metrics and individual tree detection from LiDAR","volume":"35","author":"Ferster","year":"2009","journal-title":"Can. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"339","DOI":"10.1016\/S0034-4257(99)00052-8","article-title":"LiDAR remote sensing of the canopy structure and biophysical properties of Douglas-fir western hemlock forests","volume":"70","author":"Lefsky","year":"1999","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"88","DOI":"10.1016\/S0034-4257(01)00290-5","article-title":"Predicting forest stand characteristics with airborne scanning laser using a practical two-stage procedure and field data","volume":"80","year":"2002","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"64","DOI":"10.1007\/s001380050091","article-title":"Automated delineation of individual tree crowns in high spatial resolution aerial images by multiple-scale analysis","volume":"11","author":"Brandtberg","year":"1998","journal-title":"Mach. Vis. Appl."},{"key":"ref_30","first-page":"1228","article-title":"Stem number estimation by kernel smoothing of aerial photos","volume":"26","author":"Dralle","year":"1996","journal-title":"Can. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103","DOI":"10.1016\/S0034-4257(00)00101-2","article-title":"Local maximum filtering for the extraction of tree locations and basal area from high spatial resolution imagery","volume":"73","author":"Wulder","year":"2000","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"322","DOI":"10.1016\/S0034-4257(02)00050-0","article-title":"Automated tree crown detection and delineation in high-resolution digital camera imagery of coniferous forest regeneration","volume":"82","author":"Pouliot","year":"2002","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_33","unstructured":"Schardt, M., Ziegler, M., Wimmer, A., Wack, R., and Hyyppae, J. (2002). Assessment of Forest Parameters by Means of Laser Scanning. ISPRS Arch., 302\u2013309."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"351","DOI":"10.14358\/PERS.70.3.351","article-title":"Individual Tree-Crown Delineation and Treetop Detection in High-Spatial-Resolution Aerial Imagery","volume":"70","author":"Wang","year":"2004","journal-title":"Photogramm. Eng. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"393","DOI":"10.2134\/agronj1999.00021962009100030007x","article-title":"A comparative study of interpolation methods for mapping soil properties","volume":"91","author":"Kravchenko","year":"1999","journal-title":"Agron. J."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4636","DOI":"10.1080\/01431161.2013.779398","article-title":"Filling invalid values in a LiDAR-derived canopy height model with morphological crown control","volume":"34","author":"Zhao","year":"2013","journal-title":"Int. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_37","unstructured":"Avery, T., and Burkhart, H. (2002). Forest Measurments, McGraw-Hill. [5th ed.]."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"969","DOI":"10.1109\/36.921414","article-title":"A segmentation-based method to retrieve stem volume estimates from 3-D tree height models produced by laser scanners","volume":"39","author":"Kelle","year":"2001","journal-title":"IEEE. Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_39","first-page":"925","article-title":"Detecting and measuring individual trees using an airborne laser scanner","volume":"68","author":"Persson","year":"2002","journal-title":"Photogramm. Eng. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"290","DOI":"10.1016\/S0034-4257(03)00008-7","article-title":"Detection and analysis of individual leaf-off tree crowns in small footprint, high sampling density Lidar data from eastern deciduous forest in North America","volume":"85","author":"Brandtberg","year":"2003","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_41","first-page":"209","article-title":"Method of removing pits of canopy height model from airborne LiDAR","volume":"30","author":"Duan","year":"2014","journal-title":"Trans. CSAE"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"923","DOI":"10.14358\/PERS.72.8.923","article-title":"Isolating individual trees in a savanna woodland using small footprint LiDAR data","volume":"72","author":"Chen","year":"2006","journal-title":"Photogramm. Eng. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_43","unstructured":"Tiede, D., Hochleitner, G., and Blaschke, T. A full GIS-based workflow for tree identification and tree crown delineation using laser scanning, CMRT, 2005, Vienna, Austria, 29\u201330 August 2005."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"357","DOI":"10.14358\/PERS.72.4.357","article-title":"Detection of Individual Tree Crowns in Airborne LiDAR Data","volume":"72","author":"Koch","year":"2006","journal-title":"Photogramm. Eng. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"117","DOI":"10.1080\/01431160902882561","article-title":"Adaptive clustering of airborne LiDAR data to segment individual tree crowns in managed pine forests","volume":"31","author":"Lee","year":"2010","journal-title":"Int. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4163","DOI":"10.3390\/rs5094163","article-title":"Delineating Individual Trees from LiDAR Data: A Comparison of Vector- and Raster-based Segmentation Approaches","volume":"5","author":"Jakubowski","year":"2013","journal-title":"Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2810","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2010.02.021","article-title":"Assessment of the impacts of surface topography, off-nadir pointing and vegetation structure on vegetation LiDAR waveforms using an extended geometric optical and radiative transfer model","volume":"115","author":"Yang","year":"2011","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2776","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2010.08.026","article-title":"Physically based vertical vegetation structure retrieval from ICESat data: Validation using LVIS in White Mountain National Forest, New Hampshire, USA","volume":"115","author":"Lee","year":"2011","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6566","DOI":"10.3390\/rs6076566","article-title":"Application of Physically-Based Slope Correction for Maximum Forest Canopy Height Estimation Using Waveform Lidar across Different Footprint Sizes and Locations: Tests on LVIS and GLAS","volume":"6","author":"Park","year":"2014","journal-title":"Remote Sens."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/15\/6\/12133\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T20:46:56Z","timestamp":1760215616000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/15\/6\/12133"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2015,5,26]]},"references-count":49,"journal-issue":{"issue":"6","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2015,6]]}},"alternative-id":["s150612133"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s150612133","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2015,5,26]]}}}