{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,13]],"date-time":"2025-10-13T09:07:43Z","timestamp":1760346463069,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":43,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"6","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2015,6,19]],"date-time":"2015-06-19T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1434672000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>A kind of multi feature points matching algorithm fusing local geometric constraints is proposed for the purpose of quickly loop closing detection in RGB-D Simultaneous Localization and Mapping (SLAM). The visual feature is encoded with BRAND (binary robust appearance and normals descriptor), which efficiently combines appearance and geometric shape information from RGB-D images. Furthermore, the feature descriptors are stored using the Locality-Sensitive-Hashing (LSH) technique and hierarchical clustering trees are used to search for these binary features. Finally, the algorithm for matching of multi feature points using local geometric constraints is provided, which can effectively reject the possible false closure hypotheses. We demonstrate the efficiency of our algorithms by real-time RGB-D SLAM with loop closing detection in indoor image sequences taken with a handheld Kinect camera and comparative experiments using other algorithms in RTAB-Map dealing with a benchmark dataset.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s150614639","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2015,6,19]],"date-time":"2015-06-19T10:23:33Z","timestamp":1434709413000},"page":"14639-14660","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":18,"title":["Loop Closing Detection in RGB-D SLAM Combining Appearance and Geometric Constraints"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9027-3261","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Heng","family":"Zhang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Information Engineering, East China Jiaotong University, Nanchang 330013, China"},{"name":"Department of Mechanical, Aerospace and Biomedical Engineering, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN 37996, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Yanli","family":"Liu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Information Engineering, East China Jiaotong University, Nanchang 330013, China"},{"name":"Department of Mechanical, Aerospace and Biomedical Engineering, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN 37996, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Jindong","family":"Tan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Mechanical, Aerospace and Biomedical Engineering, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN 37996, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2015,6,19]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1611","DOI":"10.1177\/0278364913498910","article-title":"Robust Loop Closing over Time for Pose Graph SLAM","volume":"32","author":"Latif","year":"2013","journal-title":"Int. J. Rob. Res."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"Strasdat, H., Davison, A.J., Montiel, J.M.M., and Konolige, K. Double window optimisation for constant time visual SLAM. 2352\u20132359."},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"Jongwoo, L., Frahm, J.M., and Pollefeys, M. Online environment mapping. 3489\u20133496."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Klein, G., and Murray, D. Improving the Agility of Keyframe-Based SLAM. 802\u2013815.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-540-88688-4_59"},{"key":"ref_5","unstructured":"Guo, L.J. (2007). Study on Simultaneous Localization and Mapping of Mobile Robot in Large-Scale Environments. [Ph.D. Thesis, Tianjin University]."},{"key":"ref_6","unstructured":"Sunderhauf, N., and Protzel, P. Towards a robust back-end for pose graph SLAM. 1254\u20131261."},{"key":"ref_7","unstructured":"Leutenegger, S., Chli, M., and Siegwart, R.Y. BRISK: Binary Robust invariant scalable keypoints. 2548\u20132555."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"778","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-642-15561-1_56","article-title":"BRIEF: Binary Robust Independent Elementary Features","volume":"Volume 6314","author":"Daniilidis","year":"2010","journal-title":"Computer Vision\u2014ECCV 2010"},{"key":"ref_9","unstructured":"Nascimento, E.R., Oliveira, G.L., Campos, M.F.M., Vieira, A.W., and Schwartz, W.R. BRAND: A robust appearance and depth descriptor for RGB-D images. 1720\u20131726."},{"key":"ref_10","unstructured":"Gionis, A., Indyk, P., and Motwani, R. Similarity Search in High Dimensions via Hashing. 518\u2013529."},{"key":"ref_11","unstructured":"Muja, M., and Lowe, D.G. Fast Matching of Binary Features. 404\u2013410."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1027","DOI":"10.1109\/TRO.2008.2004514","article-title":"Fast and Incremental Method for Loop-Closure Detection Using Bags of Visual Words","volume":"24","author":"Angeli","year":"2008","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Robot."},{"key":"ref_13","unstructured":"Nister, D., and Stewenius, H. Scalable Recognition with a Vocabulary Tree. 2161\u20132168."},{"key":"ref_14","unstructured":"Schindler, G., Brown, M., and Szeliski, R. City-Scale Location Recognition Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition. 1\u20137."},{"key":"ref_15","unstructured":"Cummins, M., and Newman, P. Probabilistic Appearance Based Navigation and Loop Closing. 2042\u20132048."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1100","DOI":"10.1177\/0278364910385483","article-title":"Appearance-only SLAM at Large Scale with FAB-MAP 2.0","volume":"30","author":"Cummins","year":"2011","journal-title":"Int. J. Rob. Res."},{"key":"ref_17","unstructured":"Whelan, T., Kaess, M., Fallon, M., Johannsson, H., Leonard, J., and McDonald, J. Kintinuous: Spatially extended kinectfusion."},{"key":"ref_18","unstructured":"Bosse, M., Newman, P., Leonard, J., Soika, M., Feiten, W., and Teller, S. An Atlas framework for scalable mapping, Robotics and Automation. 1899\u20131906."},{"key":"ref_19","unstructured":"Olson, E.B. (2008). Robust and Efficient Robotic Mapping. [Ph.D. Thesis, Massachusetts Institute of Technology]."},{"key":"ref_20","unstructured":"Newman, P., and Kin, H. SLAM-Loop Closing with Visually Salient Features. 635\u2013642."},{"key":"ref_21","unstructured":"Sunderhauf, N., and Protzel, P. BRIEF-Gist\u2014Closing the loop by simple means. 1234\u20131241."},{"key":"ref_22","unstructured":"Williams, B., Klein, G., and Reid, I. Real-Time SLAM Relocalisation. 1\u20138."},{"key":"ref_23","unstructured":"Martinez-Carranza, J., Calway, A., and Mayol-Cuevas, W. Enhancing 6D visual relocalisation with depth cameras. 899\u2013906."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1699","DOI":"10.1109\/TPAMI.2011.41","article-title":"Automatic Relocalization and Loop Closing for Real-Time Monocular SLAM","volume":"33","author":"Williams","year":"2011","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Pattern Anal. Mach. Intell."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"941","DOI":"10.1177\/0278364910370376","article-title":"View-Based Maps","volume":"29","author":"Konolige","year":"2010","journal-title":"Int. J. Rob. Res."},{"key":"ref_26","unstructured":"Eade, E., and Drummond, T. Unified loop closing and recovery for real time monocular slam. 6.1\u20136.10."},{"key":"ref_27","unstructured":"Pirker, K., Ruther, M., and Bischof, H. CD SLAM\u2014Continuous localization and mapping in a dynamic world. 3990\u20133997."},{"key":"ref_28","unstructured":"Wei, T., Liu, H., Dong, Z., Zhang, G., and Bao, H. Robust monocular SLAM in dynamic environments. 209\u2013218."},{"key":"ref_29","unstructured":"Mur-Artal, R., and Tardos, J.D. Fast relocalisation and loop closing in keyframe-based SLAM. 846\u2013853."},{"key":"ref_30","unstructured":"Johannsson, H., Kaess, M., Fallon, M., and Leonard, J.J. Temporally scalable visual SLAM using a reduced pose graph, Robotics and Automation (ICRA). 54\u201361."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"91","DOI":"10.1023\/B:VISI.0000029664.99615.94","article-title":"Distinctive Image Features from Scale-Invariant Keypoints","volume":"60","author":"Lowe","year":"2004","journal-title":"Int. J. Comput. Vis."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"346","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cviu.2007.09.014","article-title":"Speeded-Up Robust Features (SURF)","volume":"110","author":"Bay","year":"2008","journal-title":"Comput. Vis. Image Underst."},{"key":"ref_33","unstructured":"Rublee, E., Rabaud, V., Konolige, K., and Bradski, G. ORB: An efficient alternative to SIFT or SURF. 2564\u20132571."},{"key":"ref_34","unstructured":"Silpa-Anan, C., and Hartley, R. Optimised KD-trees for fast image descriptor matching. 1063\u20136919."},{"key":"ref_35","unstructured":"Muja, M., and Lowe, D.G. Fast Approximate Nearest Neighbors with Automatic Algorithm Configuration. 331\u2013340."},{"key":"ref_36","unstructured":"Datar, M., and Indyk, P. Locality-sensitive hashing scheme based on p-stable distributions. 253\u2013262."},{"key":"ref_37","unstructured":"Indyk, P., and Motwani, R. Approximate Nearest Neighbors: Towards Removing the Curse of Dimensionality. 604\u2013613."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105","DOI":"10.1109\/TPAMI.2008.275","article-title":"Faster and Better: A Machine Learning Approach to Corner Detection","volume":"32","author":"Rosten","year":"2010","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Pattern Anal. Mach. Intell."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"381","DOI":"10.1145\/358669.358692","article-title":"Random Sample Consensus: A Paradigm for Model Fitting with Applications to Image Analysis and Automated Cartography","volume":"24","author":"Fischler","year":"1981","journal-title":"Commun. ACM"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"731","DOI":"10.1109\/TRO.2007.900608","article-title":"Closing the Loop With Graphical SLAM","volume":"23","author":"Folkesson","year":"2007","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Robot."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"428","DOI":"10.1109\/TITS.2009.2026444","article-title":"Nonlinear Constraint Network Optimization for Efficient Map Learning","volume":"10","author":"Grisetti","year":"2009","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Intell. Transp. Syst."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"734","DOI":"10.1109\/TRO.2013.2242375","article-title":"Appearance-Based Loop Closure Detection for Online Large-Scale and Long-Term Operation","volume":"29","author":"Labbe","year":"2013","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Robot."},{"key":"ref_43","unstructured":"Sturm, J., Engelhard, N., Endres, F., Burgard, W., and Cremers, D. A benchmark for the evaluation of RGB-D SLAM systems. 573\u2013580."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/15\/6\/14639\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T20:48:08Z","timestamp":1760215688000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/15\/6\/14639"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2015,6,19]]},"references-count":43,"journal-issue":{"issue":"6","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2015,6]]}},"alternative-id":["s150614639"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s150614639","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"1424-8220"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2015,6,19]]}}}