{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,12]],"date-time":"2025-10-12T04:24:55Z","timestamp":1760243095089,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":27,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"7","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2015,7,22]],"date-time":"2015-07-22T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1437523200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"FFG (FIT-IT)","award":["COSMOS"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["COSMOS"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>This article presents a color light detection system integrated in 130 nm CMOS technology. The sensors and corresponding electronics detect light in a CIE XYZ color luminosity space using on-chip integrated sensors without any additional process steps,  high-resolution analog-to-digital converter, and dedicated DSP algorithm. The sensor consists of a set of laterally arranged integrated photodiodes that are partly covered by metal, where color separation between the photodiodes is achieved by lateral carrier diffusion together with wavelength-dependent absorption. A high resolution, hybrid,  \u2211\u2206 ADC converts each photo diode\u2019s current into a 22-bit digital result, canceling the dark current of the photo diodes. The digital results are further processed by the DSP, which calculates normalized XYZ or RGB color and intensity parameters using linear transformations of the three photo diode responses by multiplication of the data with a transformation matrix, where the coefficients are extracted by training in combination with a pseudo-inverse operation and the least-mean square approximation. The sensor system detects the color light parameters with 22-bit accuracy, consumes less than 60 \u03bcA on average at 10 readings per second, and occupies approx. 0.8 mm2 of silicon area (including three photodiodes and the analog part of the ADC). The DSP is currently implemented on FPGA.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s150717786","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2015,7,22]],"date-time":"2015-07-22T08:45:40Z","timestamp":1437554740000},"page":"17786-17807","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":5,"title":["Integrated High Resolution Digital Color Light Sensor in 130 nm CMOS Technology"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"given":"Drago","family":"Strle","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Ljubljana, Electrical Engineering Department, Tr\u017ea\u0161ka 25, Ljubljana 1000, Slovenia"}]},{"given":"Uro\u0161","family":"Nahtigal","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Ljubljana, Electrical Engineering Department, Tr\u017ea\u0161ka 25, Ljubljana 1000, Slovenia"}]},{"given":"Graciele","family":"Batistell","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Carinthia University of Applied Sciences, Europastrasse 4, Villach 9585, Austria"}]},{"given":"Vincent","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Infineon Technologies Austria AG, Siemensstrae 2, Villach 9500, Austria"}]},{"given":"Erwin","family":"Ofner","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Carinthia University of Applied Sciences, Europastrasse 4, Villach 9585, Austria"}]},{"given":"Andrea","family":"Fant","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Infineon Technologies Austria AG, Siemensstrae 2, Villach 9500, Austria"}]},{"given":"Johannes","family":"Sturm","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Carinthia University of Applied Sciences, Europastrasse 4, Villach 9585, Austria"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2015,7,22]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"CIE (1926). Cambridge University Press."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"Bayer, B.E. (1976). Color Imaging Array. (3,971,065), U.S. Patent."},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"Merrill, R.B. (1999). Color Separation in an Active Pixel Cell Imaging Array Using a Triple-Well-Structure. (5,965,875), U.S. Patent."},{"key":"ref_4","first-page":"109","article-title":"Integrated photodiodes in standard BiCMOS technology","volume":"4969","author":"Sturm","year":"2003","journal-title":"Proc. SPIE"},{"key":"ref_5","unstructured":"Polzer, A., Gaberl, W., and Zimmermann, H. (2011, January 23). Filter-less Vertical Integrated RGB Color Sensor for Light Monitoring. Proceedings of the 34th International Convention IEEE, Opatija, Croatia."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"350","DOI":"10.1109\/JSSC.1987.1052732","article-title":"A simple integrated color indicator","volume":"22","author":"Wolffenbuttel","year":"1987","journal-title":"IEEE J. Solid-State Circuits"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"337","DOI":"10.1109\/55.736","article-title":"Integrated all-silicon color filtering element with an enhanced wavelength tunability","volume":"9","author":"Wolffenbuttel","year":"1988","journal-title":"IEEE Electron. Dev. Lett."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"574","DOI":"10.1016\/0924-4247(89)80038-X","article-title":"Performance of an integrated silicon colour sensor with a digital output in terms of response to colours in the colour triangle","volume":"22","author":"Wolffenbuttel","year":"1990","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators A Phys."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"172","DOI":"10.1016\/S0924-4247(99)00006-0","article-title":"A Silicon Blue\/UV Selective Stripe-Shaped Photodiode","volume":"76","author":"Pauchard","year":"1999","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators A Phys."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"169","DOI":"10.1016\/j.microrel.2009.10.008","article-title":"Design of a fully cmos compatible 3-lm size color pixel","volume":"50","author":"Langfelder","year":"2010","journal-title":"Microelectron. Rel."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wachowiak, A., Slesazeck, S., Jordan, P., Holz, J., and Mikolajick, T. (2013, January 16\u201320). New color sensor concept based on single spectral tunable photodiode. Proceedings of the 43rd European Solid-State Device Res. Conference, Bucharest, Rumania.","DOI":"10.1109\/ESSDERC.2013.6818835"},{"key":"ref_12","first-page":"174","article-title":"An ultralow-power switched opamp-based 10-b integrated adc for implantable biomedical applications","volume":"51","author":"Bonfini","year":"2004","journal-title":"IEEE CAS I"},{"key":"ref_13","first-page":"712","article-title":"High-Speed \u2211\u0394 Modulators with Reduced Timing Jitter Sensitivity","volume":"49","author":"Luschas","year":"2002","journal-title":"IEEE CAS I"},{"key":"ref_14","first-page":"25","article-title":"A low-power CT incremental 3rd order ADC for biosensor applications","volume":"60","author":"Garcia","year":"2013","journal-title":"IEEE CAS I"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Batistell, G., and Sturm, J. (2013, January 16\u201320). Filter-less Color Sensor in Standard CMOS Technology. Proceedings of the 43rd European Solid-State Device Res. Conference, Bucharest, Rumania.","DOI":"10.1109\/ESSDERC.2013.6818834"},{"key":"ref_16","unstructured":"Batistell, G., Sturm, J., Fant, A., and Strle, D. (2014, January 8). Color Sensor for Ambient Light Measurements in 130 nm CMOS Technology. Proceedings of 50th Conference on Microelectronics, Devices and Materials (MIDEM), Ljubljana, Slovenia."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"59","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sse.2014.06.002","article-title":"Color recognition sensor in standard cmos technology","volume":"102","author":"Batistell","year":"2014","journal-title":"Solid-State Electron."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"32","DOI":"10.1109\/TED.2002.807259","article-title":"A CMOS image sensor with a double-junction active pixel","volume":"50","author":"Findlater","year":"2003","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Electron. Devices"},{"key":"ref_19","first-page":"239","article-title":"Illumination source identification using a cmos optical microsystem","volume":"53","author":"Wolffenbuttel","year":"2004","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Instrum. Meas."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Polzer, A., Gaberl, W., and Zimmermann, H. (2011, January 28). Integrated filter-less bicmos sensor for RGB-led color determination. Proceedings of the IEEE Sensors, Limerick, Ireland.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICSENS.2011.6126957"},{"key":"ref_21","first-page":"651","article-title":"A 0.18 um CMOS bioluminescence detection lab-on-chip","volume":"41","author":"Eltoukhy","year":"2006","journal-title":"IEEE JSCC"},{"key":"ref_22","unstructured":"Schreier, R., and Temes, G.C. (2005). John Wiley & Sons. [1st ed.]."},{"key":"ref_23","unstructured":"Delta Sigma Toolbox. Available online: http:\/\/www.mathworks.com\/matlabcentral\/fileexchange\/19-delta-sigma-toolbox?s_tid=srchtitle."},{"key":"ref_24","first-page":"2184","article-title":"Fundamental limitations of continuous-time delta\u2013sigma modulators due to clock jitter","volume":"54","author":"Reddy","year":"2007","journal-title":"IEEE CAS I"},{"key":"ref_25","unstructured":"Strle, D. (2011). Engineering Education and Research Using MATLAB, In-Tech."},{"key":"ref_26","unstructured":"Strle, D., and Rai\u010d, D. (2014). MATLAB Applications for the Practical Engineer, In-Tech."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1109\/JSTQE.2014.2344032","article-title":"Integrated cmos optical sensor for light spectral analysis","volume":"20","author":"Sturm","year":"2014","journal-title":"IEEE J. Sel. Top. Quantum Electron."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/15\/7\/17786\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T20:49:34Z","timestamp":1760215774000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/15\/7\/17786"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2015,7,22]]},"references-count":27,"journal-issue":{"issue":"7","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2015,7]]}},"alternative-id":["s150717786"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s150717786","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"1424-8220"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2015,7,22]]}}}