{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,12]],"date-time":"2025-10-12T04:25:35Z","timestamp":1760243135879,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":54,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"8","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2015,7,29]],"date-time":"2015-07-29T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1438128000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>This paper proposes and assesses an integrated solution to monitor and diagnose photovoltaic (PV) solar modules based on a decentralized wireless sensor acquisition system. Both DC electrical variables and environmental data are collected at PV module level using low-cost and high-energy efficiency node sensors. Data is real-time processed locally and compared with expected PV module performances obtained by a PV module model based on symmetrized-shifted Gompertz functions (as previously developed and assessed by the authors). Sensor nodes send data to a centralized sink-computing module using a multi-hop wireless sensor network architecture. Such integration thus provides extensive analysis of PV installations, and avoids off-line tests or post-processing processes. In comparison with previous approaches, this solution is enhanced with a low-cost system and non-critical performance constraints, and it is suitable for extensive deployment in PV power plants. Moreover, it is easily implemented in existing PV installations, since no additional wiring is required. The system has been implemented and assessed in a Spanish PV power plant connected to the grid. Results and estimations of PV module performances are also included in the paper.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s150818459","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2015,7,29]],"date-time":"2015-07-29T10:25:31Z","timestamp":1438165531000},"page":"18459-18479","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":16,"title":["A Decentralized Wireless Solution to Monitor and Diagnose PV Solar Module Performance Based on Symmetrized-Shifted Gompertz Functions"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6824-8684","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Angel","family":"Molina-Garc\u00eda","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electrical Engineering, Universidad Polit\u00e9cnica de Cartagena,  30202 Cartagena, Spain"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0558-7683","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jos\u00e9","family":"Campelo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute ITACA, Universitat Polit\u00e8cnica de Val\u00e8ncia, 46071 Valencia, Spain"}]},{"given":"Sara","family":"Blanc","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute ITACA, Universitat Polit\u00e8cnica de Val\u00e8ncia, 46071 Valencia, Spain"}]},{"given":"Juan","family":"Serrano","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute ITACA, Universitat Polit\u00e8cnica de Val\u00e8ncia, 46071 Valencia, Spain"}]},{"given":"Tania","family":"Garc\u00eda-S\u00e1nchez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Renewable Energy Institute DEEEAC, Universidad de Castilla La-Mancha, 02071 Albacete, Spain"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6897-7430","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mar\u00eda","family":"Bueso","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Applied Mathematics and Statistics, Universidad Polit\u00e9cnica de Cartagena,  30202 Cartagena, Spain"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2015,7,29]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Global Wind Energy Council Global Wind Report\u2014Annual Market Update 2013. Available online: http:\/\/www.gwec.net\/wp-content\/uploads\/2014\/04\/GWEC-Global-Wind-Report_9-April-2014.pdf."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2752","DOI":"10.1109\/TIE.2008.920583","article-title":"Renewable Energy Systems with Photovoltaic Power Generators: Operation and Modeling","volume":"55","author":"Bialasiewicz","year":"2008","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6","DOI":"10.1109\/MIE.2013.2264540","article-title":"Grid-Connected Photovoltaic Generation Plants","volume":"7","author":"Spagnuolo","year":"2013","journal-title":"IEEE Ind. Electron. Mag."},{"key":"ref_4","unstructured":"Available online: http:\/\/www.epia.org."},{"key":"ref_5","unstructured":"Liserre, M., Sauter, T., and Hung, J.Y. (2010). Future Energy Systems. IEEE Ind. Electron. Mag."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4065","DOI":"10.1109\/TIA.2014.2346692","article-title":"Reactive Power Injection Strategies for Single-Phase Photovoltaic Systems Considering Grid Requirements","volume":"50","author":"Yang","year":"2014","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Ind. Appl."},{"key":"ref_7","unstructured":"Available online: http:\/\/www.iea.org."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"399","DOI":"10.1016\/j.renene.2004.04.016","article-title":"Monitoring current-voltage characteristics and energy output of silicon photovoltaic modules","volume":"30","author":"Gxasheka","year":"2005","journal-title":"Renew. Energy"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2329","DOI":"10.1016\/j.enconman.2005.11.012","article-title":"Development of a monitoring system for a PV solar plant","volume":"47","author":"Forero","year":"2006","journal-title":"Energy Convers. Manag."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4456","DOI":"10.1109\/TIE.2008.927404","article-title":"Descriptive and Inferential Statistics for Supervising and Monitoring the Operation of PV Plants","volume":"56","author":"Vergura","year":"2009","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1066","DOI":"10.1109\/TIE.2006.878327","article-title":"Intelligent PV Module for Grid-Connected PV Systems","volume":"53","author":"Roman","year":"2006","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2215","DOI":"10.1109\/TIM.2014.2308972","article-title":"PLC-Based PV Plants Smart Monitoring System: Field Measurements and Uncertainty Estimation","volume":"63","year":"2014","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Instrum. Meas."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"816","DOI":"10.1016\/j.enconman.2010.08.007","article-title":"Measured performance of a 1.72 kW rooftop grid connected photovoltaic system in Ireland","volume":"52","author":"Ayompe","year":"2011","journal-title":"Energy Convers. Manag."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1307","DOI":"10.1109\/TIM.2011.2180972","article-title":"Outdoor Experimental Laboratory for Long-Term Estimation of Photovoltaic-Plant Performance","volume":"61","author":"Carullo","year":"2012","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Instrum. Meas."},{"key":"ref_15","first-page":"264","article-title":"Wireless Sensor Networks and Applications: A Survey","volume":"7","year":"2007","journal-title":"Int. J. Comput. Sci. Netw. Secur."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2569","DOI":"10.1109\/TIE.2008.924016","article-title":"Reliability Issues in PV Power Processing Systems","volume":"55","author":"Petrone","year":"2008","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2379","DOI":"10.3390\/s140202379","article-title":"Development of a Wireless Sensor Network for Individual Monitoring of Panels in a Photovoltaic Plant","volume":"14","author":"Prieto","year":"2014","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"And\u00f2, B., Baglio, S., Pistorio, A., Tina, G.M., and Ventura, C. (2015). Sentinella: Smart Monitoring of Photovoltaic Systems at Panel Level. IEEE Trans. Instrum. Meas.","DOI":"10.1109\/TIM.2014.2386931"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dargie, W., and Poellabauer, C. (2010). Fundamentals of Wireless Sensor Networks: Theory and Practice, John Wiley and Sons.","DOI":"10.1002\/9780470666388"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sohraby, K., Minoli, D., and Znati, T. (2007). Wireless Sensor Networks: Technology, Protocols, and Applications, John Wiley and Sons.","DOI":"10.1002\/047011276X"},{"key":"ref_21","unstructured":"Mau, S. Available online: http:\/\/www.iea-pvps.org\/."},{"key":"ref_22","unstructured":"Molina-Garc\u00eda, A., Campelo, J.C., Serrano, J.J., G\u00f3mez-L\u00e1zaro, E., and Garc\u00eda-S\u00e1nchez, T. (2014, January 10\u201311). Application of Wireless Sensor Network to PV Solar Module Monitoring. Proceedings of the 4th Solar Integration Workshop, Berlin, Germany."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2217","DOI":"10.1016\/j.solener.2011.06.008","article-title":"A comprehensive MATLAB Simulink PV system simulator with partial shading capability based on two-diode model","volume":"85","author":"Ishaque","year":"2011","journal-title":"Sol. Energy"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1365","DOI":"10.1109\/TIE.2007.893059","article-title":"Regulation of Photovoltaic Voltage","volume":"54","author":"Xiao","year":"2007","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"286","DOI":"10.1109\/T-ED.1987.22920","article-title":"Analytical methods for the extraction of solar-cell single and double diode model parameters from I\u2013V characteristics","volume":"ED-34","author":"Chan","year":"1987","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Electron. Devices"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"285","DOI":"10.1109\/TEC.2002.1009482","article-title":"Dynamic multiphysics models for solar array","volume":"17","author":"Lui","year":"2002","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Energy Convers."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1727","DOI":"10.1016\/j.solener.2011.03.023","article-title":"Investigation of cloudless solar radiation with PV module employing matlab-simulink","volume":"85","author":"Vengatesh","year":"2011","journal-title":"Sol. Energy"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2695","DOI":"10.1016\/j.solener.2012.06.004","article-title":"A cell-to-module-to-array detailed model for photovoltaic panels","volume":"86","author":"Tian","year":"2012","journal-title":"Sol. Energy"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"614","DOI":"10.1016\/j.solener.2008.10.008","article-title":"On the temperature dependence of photovoltaic module electrical performance: A review of efficiency\/power correlations","volume":"83","author":"Skoplaki","year":"2009","journal-title":"Sol. Energy"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"51","DOI":"10.1109\/TEC.2014.2330741","article-title":"A New Solar Module Modeling for PV Applications Based on a Symmetrized and Shifted Gompertz Model","volume":"30","author":"Bueso","year":"2015","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Energy Convers."},{"key":"ref_31","unstructured":"R Core Team R: A Language and Environment for Statistical Computing. Available online: http:\/\/www.R-project.org."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4","DOI":"10.1109\/MIE.2009.933882","article-title":"Measuring the I\u2013V curve of PV generators","volume":"3","author":"Aranda","year":"2009","journal-title":"IEEE Ind. Electron. Mag."},{"key":"ref_33","unstructured":"Reis, A.M., Coleman, N.T., Marshall, M.W., Lehman, P.A., and Chamberlin, C.E. (2002, January 19\u201324). Comparison of PV module performance before and after 11-years of field exposure. Proceedings of the 29th IEEE Photovoltaic Specialists Conference, New Orleans, LA, USA."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Feldman, D., Barbose, G., Margolis, R., James, T., Weaver, S., Darghouth, N., Fu, R., Davidson, C., Booth, S., and Wiser, R. Photovoltaic System Pricing Trends, Historical, Recent, and Near-Term Projections 2014 Edition, Available online: http:\/\/www.nrel.gov\/docs\/fy14osti\/62558.pdf.","DOI":"10.2172\/1225306"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102","DOI":"10.1109\/TII.2008.923194","article-title":"Recent and emerging topics in wireless industrial communications: A selection","volume":"4","author":"Willig","year":"2008","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Ind. Inform."},{"key":"ref_36","unstructured":"ZigBee Specification. Available online: http:\/\/www.zigbee.org."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"S\u00e1nchez, A., Aguilar, J., Blanc, S., and Serrano, J.J. (2011, January 18\u201320). RFID-based wake-up system for Wireless sensor networks. Proceedings of the SPIE Micro Technologies, VLSI Circuits and Systems V, Prague, Czech Republic.","DOI":"10.1117\/12.887039"},{"key":"ref_38","unstructured":"STR912FAW33. Available online: http:\/\/www.st.com."},{"key":"ref_39","unstructured":"NXP Low Power RF JN Wireless Microcontrollers. Available online: http:\/\/www.jennic.com."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.csfs.2014.11.002","article-title":"Safety issues in PV systems: Design choices for a secure fault detection and for preventing fire risk","volume":"3","author":"Falvo","year":"2015","journal-title":"Case Stud. Fire Saf."},{"key":"ref_41","unstructured":"Optical Isolation for Solar Power Applications. Available online: http:\/\/www.vishay.com."},{"key":"ref_42","unstructured":"Design Guidelines for Optocoupler Safety Agency Compliance. Available online: http:\/\/www.vishay.com."},{"key":"ref_43","unstructured":"Vishay Semiconductors Optocoupler, Phototransistor Output, High Reliability, 5300 VRMS. Available online: http:\/\/www.vishay.com."},{"key":"ref_44","unstructured":"ACS712 Fully Integrated, Hall Effect-Based Linear Current Sensor IC Allegro Microsystems. Available online: http:\/\/www-allegromicro.com."},{"key":"ref_45","unstructured":"Thermometrics.PT1000 Sensor. Available online: http:\/\/www.thermometricscorp.com."},{"key":"ref_46","unstructured":"Kipp & Zonnen CMP3 Pyranometer. Available online: http:\/\/www.kippzonnen.com."},{"key":"ref_47","unstructured":"Energy Metering IC with SPI Interface and Active Power Pulse Output. Available online: http:\/\/www.microchip.com."},{"key":"ref_48","unstructured":"Futulec The ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS Superstore. Available online: http:\/\/www.futurlec.com\/Solar_Cell.shtml."},{"key":"ref_49","unstructured":"Jiang, X., Polastre, J., and Culler, D. (2005, January 25\u201327). Perpetual environmentally powered sensor networks. Proceedings of the Fourth International Symposium on Information Processing in Sensor Networks, IPSN\/SPOTS, Los Angeles, CA, USA."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11750","DOI":"10.3390\/s130911750","article-title":"SIVEH: Numerical Computing Simulation of Wireless Energy-Harvesting Sensor Nodes","volume":"13","author":"Sanchez","year":"2013","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_51","unstructured":"hotoWatt-PW1650. Available online: http:\/\/www.photowatt.com\/."},{"key":"ref_52","unstructured":"Applications Solars. PW 1650 Data-Sheet and Temperature Coefficient. Available online: http:\/\/www.aplicasolars.com\/pdf\/plaques-fotovoltaiques\/pw1650mc.pdf."},{"key":"ref_53","unstructured":"Nelson, J.A. (2010). Effects of Cloud-Induced PV Power Transient on Power System Protection. [PhD Thesis, Faculty of California Polytechnic State University]. Available online: http:\/\/digitalcommons.calpoly.edu\/cgi\/viewcontent.cgi?article=1448&context=theses."},{"key":"ref_54","unstructured":"Lenox, C. Variability in a Large Scale PV Installation, Proceedings of the Utility-Scale PV Variability Workshop, Available online:http:\/\/www.nrel.gov\/eis\/pdfs\/47514.pdf."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/15\/8\/18459\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T20:49:52Z","timestamp":1760215792000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/15\/8\/18459"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2015,7,29]]},"references-count":54,"journal-issue":{"issue":"8","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2015,8]]}},"alternative-id":["s150818459"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s150818459","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"1424-8220"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2015,7,29]]}}}