{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,13]],"date-time":"2026-02-13T15:47:08Z","timestamp":1770997628255,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":36,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"8","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2015,7,31]],"date-time":"2015-07-31T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1438300800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100000190","name":"University of Alberta","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100000190","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"Vitamin Fund, University of Alberta"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The development of portable sensors that can be used outside the lab is an active area of research in the electroanalytical field. A major focus of such research is the development of low-cost electrodes for use in these sensors. Current electrodes, such as glassy-carbon electrodes (GCEs), are costly and require time-consuming preparation. Alternatives have been proposed, including mechanical pencil-lead electrodes (MPEs). However, MPEs themselves possess numerous drawbacks, particularly structural fragility. In this paper, we present a novel pencil-graphite electrode (PGE) fabricated from a regular HB#2 pencil. This PGE is a simple, disposable, extremely low-cost alternative to GCEs ($0.30 per PGE, vs. $190 + per GCE), and possesses the structural stability that MPEs lack. PGEs were characterized by square-wave voltammetry of ferricyanide, gallic acid, uric acid, dopamine, and several foodstuffs. In all cases, PGEs demonstrated sensitivities comparable or superior to those of the GCE and MPE (LOD = 5.62 \u00d7 10\u22124 M PGE, 4.80 \u00d7 10\u22124 M GCE, 2.93 \u00d7 10\u22124 M MPE). Signal areas and peak heights were typically four to ten times larger for the PGE relative to the GCE.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s150818887","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2015,7,31]],"date-time":"2015-07-31T10:12:24Z","timestamp":1438337544000},"page":"18887-18900","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":49,"title":["Development of a Novel, Low-Cost, Disposable Wooden Pencil Graphite Electrode for Use in the Determination of Antioxidants and Other Biological Compounds"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"given":"James","family":"Kariuki","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Science, Augustana Campus, University of Alberta, 4901-46th Ave, Camrose,  AB T4V 2R3, Canada"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Emily","family":"Ervin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Science, Augustana Campus, University of Alberta, 4901-46th Ave, Camrose,  AB T4V 2R3, Canada"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Carly","family":"Olafson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Science, Augustana Campus, University of Alberta, 4901-46th Ave, Camrose,  AB T4V 2R3, Canada"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2015,7,31]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8464","DOI":"10.1016\/S1452-3981(23)12902-6","article-title":"Electrochemistry as a tool for studying antioxidant properties","volume":"8","author":"Sochor","year":"2013","journal-title":"Int. J. Electrochem. Sci."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"273","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aca.2005.01.067","article-title":"An electrochemical approach for detecting copper-chelating properties of flavonoids using disposable pencil graphite electrodes: Possible implications in copper-mediated illnesses","volume":"538","author":"Vestergaard","year":"2005","journal-title":"Anal. Chim. Acta"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.4172\/2161-1009.1000106","article-title":"Methods for total antioxidant activity determination: A review","volume":"1","author":"Pisoschi","year":"2012","journal-title":"Biochem. Anal. Biochem."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1957","DOI":"10.1021\/jf001044u","article-title":"A cyclic voltammetry method suitable for characterizing antioxidant properties of wine and wine phenolics","volume":"49","author":"Kilmartin","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Agric. Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ervin, E.M., and Kariuki, J.K. Determination of the Impact of Extraction Methods and Growing Conditions on Antioxidants in Produce by Differential Pulse Voltammetry. Availabe online: http:\/\/www.coplac.org\/publications\/metamorphosis\/metamorphosis.php?a=Spring2014.","DOI":"10.1016\/S1452-3981(23)10884-4"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6235","DOI":"10.1016\/S1452-3981(23)10884-4","article-title":"Effect of extraction method on antioxidant determination in produce by differential pulse voltammetry","volume":"9","author":"Ervin","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. J. Electrochem. Sci."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"860","DOI":"10.1016\/S0891-5849(00)00178-7","article-title":"The use of cyclic voltammetry for the evaluation of anioxidant capacity","volume":"28","author":"Chevion","year":"2000","journal-title":"Free Rad. Biol. Med."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"820","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodchem.2009.12.090","article-title":"Electrochemical determination of antioxidant capacity of fruit tea infusions","volume":"121","author":"Valek","year":"2010","journal-title":"Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"61","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodchem.2008.03.033","article-title":"Antioxidant activity of Agaricus sp. mushrooms by chemical, biochemical and electrochemical assays","volume":"111","author":"Barros","year":"2008","journal-title":"Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_10","first-page":"197","article-title":"Electrochemical and antioxidant properties of (+)-catechin, quercetin and rutin","volume":"83","author":"Jakobek","year":"2010","journal-title":"Croat. Chem. Acta"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2327","DOI":"10.3390\/12102327","article-title":"Electrochemical behavior and antioxidant and prooxidant activity of natural phenolics","volume":"12","author":"Segan","year":"2007","journal-title":"Molecules"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"71","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aca.2004.01.038","article-title":"Electrochemical approach for discriminating and measuring predominant flavonoids and phenolic acids using differential pulse voltammetry: Towards an electrochemical index of natural antioxidants","volume":"511","author":"Blasco","year":"2004","journal-title":"Anal. Chim. Acta"},{"key":"ref_13","unstructured":"Pine Research Instrumentation Glassy Carbon Electrodes. Available online: https:\/\/www.pineinst.com\/echem\/viewproduct.asp?ID=46720."},{"key":"ref_14","unstructured":"Bioanalytical Systems Inc. BASi Prices. Available online: http:\/\/www.basinc.com\/products\/prices.php?country=usa&title=BASi+Stationary+Voltammetry+Electrodes&ref=%2Fproducts%2Fec%2Fsve.php&search=MF-2011%2CMF-2012%2CMF-2070%2CMF-2013%2CMF-2071%2CMF-2014%2CMF-2072%2CMF-2073%2CMF-2010%2CMF-2015%2CCF-1010%2CMF-2016%2CMF-2018&x=25&y=14."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"241","DOI":"10.1016\/S0039-9140(00)00324-6","article-title":"Electrochemical study of antioxidants at a polypyrrole electrode modified by a nickel phthalocyanine complex. Application to their HPLC separation and to their FIA system detections","volume":"52","author":"Riber","year":"2000","journal-title":"Talanta"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"H747","DOI":"10.1149\/2.007209jes","article-title":"An Electrochemical and Spectroscopic Characterization of Pencil Graphite Electrodes","volume":"159","author":"Kariuki","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Electrochem. Soc."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1670","DOI":"10.3390\/s100301670","article-title":"A thick-film sensor as a novel device for determination of polyphenols and their antioxidant capacity in white wine","volume":"10","author":"Photinon","year":"2010","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"37","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apsusc.2014.02.039","article-title":"Disposable pencil graphite electrode modified with peptide nanotubes for Vitamin B12 analysis","volume":"303","author":"Pala","year":"2014","journal-title":"Appl. Surf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18","DOI":"10.1016\/j.colsurfb.2011.03.030","article-title":"Carbon nanotube-chitosan modified disposable pencil graphite electrode for Vitamin B12 analysis","volume":"87","author":"Kuralay","year":"2011","journal-title":"Colloids Surf. B. Biointerfaces"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20","DOI":"10.1016\/j.electacta.2014.01.153","article-title":"Sensitive voltammetric determination of niclosamide at a disposable pencil graphite electrode","volume":"127","author":"Dede","year":"2014","journal-title":"Electrochim. Acta"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"92","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jelechem.2014.02.007","article-title":"Voltammetric and impedimetric detection of DNA hybridization by using dendrimer modified graphite electrodes","volume":"719","author":"Mese","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Electroanal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"326","DOI":"10.1016\/j.electacta.2013.11.014","article-title":"Electrochemical characterization and determination of paclitaxel drug using graphite pencil electrode","volume":"116","author":"Gowda","year":"2014","journal-title":"Electrochim. Acta"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2497","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bios.2010.04.020","article-title":"Preparation of selective and sensitive electrochemically treated pencil graphite electrodes for the determination of uric acid in urine and blood serum","volume":"25","author":"Ozcan","year":"2010","journal-title":"Biosens. Bioelectron."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2288","DOI":"10.1039\/c2ay25463h","article-title":"Determination of uric acid in biological samples on the pretreated pencil graphite electrode","volume":"4","author":"Alipour","year":"2012","journal-title":"Anal. Methods"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"36","DOI":"10.1016\/j.electacta.2012.12.079","article-title":"Simultaneous determination of dopamine and uric acid in biological samples on the pretreated pencil graphite electrode","volume":"91","author":"Alipour","year":"2013","journal-title":"Electrochim. Acta"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"224","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2012.11.002","article-title":"A new approach for paper-based analytical devices with electrochemical detection based on graphite pencil electrodes","volume":"177","author":"Santhiago","year":"2013","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators B Chem."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"78","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2013.06.075","article-title":"A novel impedimetric sensor based on molecularly imprinted polypyrrole modified pencil graphite electrode for trace level determination of chlorpyrifos","volume":"188","author":"Uygun","year":"2013","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators B Chem."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"214","DOI":"10.1016\/j.talanta.2013.04.038","article-title":"Gold nanoparticle-modified graphite pencil electrode for the high-sensitivity detection of hydrazine","volume":"115","author":"Kawde","year":"2013","journal-title":"Talanta"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.1016\/j.talanta.2013.03.047","article-title":"Electrochemical evaluation and adsorptive stripping voltammetric determination of capsaicin or dihydrocapsaicin on a disposable pencil graphite electrode","volume":"112","year":"2013","journal-title":"Talanta"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2046","DOI":"10.1002\/jsfa.2604","article-title":"Methodology for the determination of biological antioxidant capacity in vitro: A review","volume":"86","author":"Wood","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Sci. Food Agric."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"957","DOI":"10.1351\/PAC-REP-12-07-15","article-title":"Methods of measurement and evaluation of natural antioxidant capacity\/activity (IUPAC Technical Report)","volume":"85","author":"Apak","year":"2013","journal-title":"Pure Appl. Chem."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1534","DOI":"10.1016\/S1452-3981(23)15537-4","article-title":"Determination of ascorbic acid in tablet dosage forms and some fruit juices by DPV","volume":"3","author":"Yilmaz","year":"2008","journal-title":"Int. J. Electrochem. Sci."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"329","DOI":"10.1139\/cjc-2014-0024","article-title":"Electrochemical studies of ascorbic acid , dopamine , and uric acid at a DL-norvaline-deposited glassy carbon electrode","volume":"336","author":"Kamel","year":"2014","journal-title":"Can. J. Chem."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"223","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2012.03.020","article-title":"Electrocatalytic oxidation of sulphide using a pencil graphite electrode modified with hematoxylin","volume":"171","author":"Dilgin","year":"2012","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators B Chem."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1028","DOI":"10.1021\/ed4004518","article-title":"Design, development, and characterization of an inexpensive portable cyclic voltammeter","volume":"91","author":"Mott","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Chem. Educ."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110","DOI":"10.1021\/ed500587a","article-title":"Assembly of a robust and economical MnO2-based reference electrode","volume":"92","author":"Masse","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Chem. Educ."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/15\/8\/18887\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T20:50:01Z","timestamp":1760215801000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/15\/8\/18887"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2015,7,31]]},"references-count":36,"journal-issue":{"issue":"8","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2015,8]]}},"alternative-id":["s150818887"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s150818887","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2015,7,31]]}}}