{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,16]],"date-time":"2026-02-16T10:02:34Z","timestamp":1771236154965,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":40,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"10","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2015,10,21]],"date-time":"2015-10-21T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1445385600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>During the last decades, structural health monitoring (SHM) systems are used in order to detect damage in structures. We have developed a novel structural health monitoring approach, the so-called \u201ceffective structural health monitoring\u201d (eSHM) system. The current SHM system is incorporated into a metallic structure by means of additive manufacturing (AM) and has the possibility to advance life safety and reduce direct operative costs. It operates based on a network of capillaries that are integrated into an AM structure. The internal pressure of the capillaries is continuously monitored by a pressure sensor. When a crack nucleates and reaches the capillary, the internal pressure changes signifying the existence of the flaw. The main objective of this paper is to evaluate the crack detection capacity of the eSHM system and crack location accuracy by means of various non-destructive testing (NDT) techniques. During this study, detailed acoustic emission (AE) analysis was applied in AM materials for the first time in order to investigate if phenomena like the Kaiser effect and waveform parameters used in conventional metals can offer valuable insight into the damage accumulation of the AM structure as well. Liquid penetrant inspection, eddy current and radiography were also used in order to confirm the fatigue damage and indicate the damage location on un-notched four-point bending AM metallic specimens with an integrated eSHM system. It is shown that the eSHM system in combination with NDT can provide correct information on the damage condition of additive manufactured metals.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s151026709","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2015,10,22]],"date-time":"2015-10-22T03:05:31Z","timestamp":1445483131000},"page":"26709-26725","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":41,"title":["Evaluation of SHM System Produced by Additive Manufacturing via Acoustic Emission and Other NDT Methods"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"given":"Maria","family":"Strantza","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Mechanics of Materials and Constructions, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Pleinlaan 2, Brussels 1050, Belgium"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6729-8556","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Dimitrios","family":"Aggelis","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Mechanics of Materials and Constructions, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Pleinlaan 2, Brussels 1050, Belgium"}]},{"given":"Dieter","family":"De Baere","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Mechanical Engineering, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Pleinlaan 2, Brussels 1050, Belgium"}]},{"given":"Patrick","family":"Guillaume","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Mechanical Engineering, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Pleinlaan 2, Brussels 1050, Belgium"}]},{"given":"Danny","family":"Van Hemelrijck","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Mechanics of Materials and Constructions, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Pleinlaan 2, Brussels 1050, Belgium"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2015,10,21]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","first-page":"303","article-title":"An introduction to structural health monitoring","volume":"365","author":"Farrar","year":"2007","journal-title":"Philos. Trans. A. Math. Phys. Eng. Sci."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sharp, N., Kuntz, A., Brubaker, C., Amos, S., Gao, W., Gupta, G., Mohite, A., Farrar, C., and Mascare\u00f1as, D. (2014). A bio-inspired asynchronous skin system for crack detection applications. Smart Mater. Struct., 23.","DOI":"10.1088\/0964-1726\/23\/5\/055020"},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"Salowitz, N., Guo, Z., Roy, S., Nardari, R., Li, Y.H., Kim, S.J., Kopsaftopoulos, F., and Chang, F.K. (2013, January 10\u201312). A vision on stretchable bio-inspired networks for intelligent structures. Proceedings of the 9th International Workshop on Structural Health Monitoring, Stanford, CA, USA."},{"key":"ref_4","unstructured":"Mandache, C., Genest, M., Khan, M., and Mrad, N. (2011, January 2\u20134). Considerations on Structural Health Monitoring Reliability. Proceedings of the International Workshop Smart Materials, Structures & NDT in Aerospace, Montreal, QC, Canada."},{"key":"ref_5","unstructured":"Speckmann, H., and Roesner, H. (2006, January 25\u201329). Structural Health Monitoring: A Contribution to the Intelligent Aircraft Structure. Proceedings of the 9th European Conference on NDT (ECNDT), Berlin, Germany."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1917","DOI":"10.1007\/s11665-014-0958-z","article-title":"Metal additive manufacturing: A review","volume":"23","author":"Frazier","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Mater. Eng. Perform."},{"key":"ref_7","first-page":"13","article-title":"Additive manufacturing in aerospace: Examples and research outlook","volume":"44","author":"Lyons","year":"2014","journal-title":"Bridge"},{"key":"ref_8","unstructured":"De Baere, D., Strantza, M., Hinderdael, M., Devesse, W., and Guillaume, P. (2014, January 8\u201311). Effective Structural Health Monitoring with Additive Manufacturing. Proceedings of the EWSHM-7th European Workshop on Structural Health Monitoring, Nantes, France."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Strantza, M., De Baere, D., Rombouts, M., Maes, G., Guillaume, P., and Van Hemelrijck, D. (2015). Feasibility study on integrated structural health monitoring system produced by metal three-dimensional printing. Struct. Health Monit.","DOI":"10.1177\/1475921715604389"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Strantza, M., Vafadari, R., de Baere, D., Rombouts, M., Vandendael, I., Terryn, H., Hinderdael, M., Rezaei, A., van Paepegem, W., and Guillaume, P. (2015, January 1\u20133). Evaluation of Different Topologies of Integrated Capillaries in Effective Structural Health Monitoring System Produced by 3D Printing. Proceedings of the 10th International Workshop on Structural Health Monitoring, Stanford, CA, USA.","DOI":"10.12783\/SHM2015\/22"},{"key":"ref_11","unstructured":"Wanhill, R.J.H., De Graaf, E.A.B., and Delil, A.A.M. (1979, January 4\u20137). Significance of a rotor blade failure for fleet operation, inspection, maintenance, design and certification. Proceedings of the Fifth European Rotorcraft and Powered Lift Aircraft Forum, Amsterdam, The Netherlands."},{"key":"ref_12","unstructured":"Telgkamp, J., Speckmann, H., and Abel, B. (2009). System und Verfahren zum \u00dcberwachen des Zustands von Strukturbauteilen. (WO2009127260 A1), U.S. Patent."},{"key":"ref_13","unstructured":"Laxton, N. (2009). Method for Monitoring for Cracking in a Componant. (US20090078357 A1), U.S. Patent."},{"key":"ref_14","unstructured":"Davey, K.J. (2002). Method and Apparatus for Monitoring the Integrity of Components and Structures. (US20020029614 A1), U.S. Patent."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"859","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aei.2012.06.006","article-title":"Knowledge-based support in Non-Destructive Testing for health monitoring of aircraft structures","volume":"26","year":"2012","journal-title":"Adv. Eng. Informatics"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2525","DOI":"10.3390\/s110302525","article-title":"Non-destructive techniques based on eddy current testing","volume":"11","year":"2011","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"493","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ndteint.2010.05.004","article-title":"The pulsed eddy current response to applied loading of various aluminium alloys","volume":"43","author":"Morozov","year":"2010","journal-title":"NDT&E Int."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"184","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ndteint.2013.12.014","article-title":"Evaluation of polychromatic X-ray radiography defect detection limits in a sample fabricated from Hastelloy X by selective laser melting","volume":"62","author":"Rometsch","year":"2014","journal-title":"NDT&E Int."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"31","DOI":"10.1016\/j.measurement.2015.04.007","article-title":"An accurate evaluation of the residual stress of welded electrical steels with magnetic Barkhausen noise","volume":"71","author":"Vourna","year":"2015","journal-title":"Measurement"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dahia, A., Berthelot, E., Bihan, Y.L., and Daniel, L. (2015). A model-based method for the characterisation of stress in magnetic materials using eddy current non-destructive evaluation. J. Phys. D. Appl. Phys., 48.","DOI":"10.1088\/0022-3727\/48\/19\/195002"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"232","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sna.2013.01.027","article-title":"Investigation of temperature effect of stress detection based on Barkhausen noise","volume":"194","author":"Wang","year":"2013","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators A Phys."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2288","DOI":"10.1016\/j.msea.2010.12.010","article-title":"Residual stresses in laser direct metal deposited Waspaloy","volume":"528","author":"Moat","year":"2011","journal-title":"Mater. Sci. Eng. A"},{"key":"ref_23","first-page":"311","article-title":"Review of magnetic methods for nondestructive evaluation","volume":"21","author":"Jiles","year":"1990","journal-title":"NDT&E Int."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ndteint.2014.09.011","article-title":"A novel approach of accurately evaluating residual stress and microstructure of welded electrical steels","volume":"71","author":"Vourna","year":"2015","journal-title":"NDT&E Int."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"54","DOI":"10.1016\/j.measurement.2015.01.024","article-title":"Lateral heat conduction based eddy current thermography for detection of parallel cracks and rail tread oblique cracks","volume":"66","author":"Yang","year":"2015","journal-title":"Measurement"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Grosse, C.U., and Ohtsu, M. (2008). Acoustic Emission Testing, Springer Science & Business Media.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-540-69972-9"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"695","DOI":"10.1016\/S0143-974X(02)00064-0","article-title":"Acoustic emission monitoring of fatigue crack propagation","volume":"59","author":"Roberts","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Constr. Steel Res."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mechrescom.2011.01.011","article-title":"Acoustic emission for fatigue damage characterization in metal plates","volume":"38","author":"Aggelis","year":"2011","journal-title":"Mech. Res. Commun."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2106","DOI":"10.1007\/s11665-011-0119-6","article-title":"Acoustic emission methodology to evaluate the fracture toughness in heat treated AISI D2 tool steel","volume":"21","author":"Mostafavi","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Mater. Eng. Perform."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compstruc.2012.01.014","article-title":"Effect of plate wave dispersion on the acoustic emission parameters in metals","volume":"98\u201399","author":"Aggelis","year":"2012","journal-title":"Comput. Struct."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"669","DOI":"10.1016\/S0167-6636(01)00081-3","article-title":"Kaiser effect observation in brittle rock cyclically loaded with different loading rates","volume":"33","author":"Lavrov","year":"2001","journal-title":"Mech. Mater."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Aggelis, D.G., Dassios, K.G., Kordatos, E.Z., and Matikas, T.E. (2013). Damage accumulation in cyclically-loaded glass-ceramic matrix composites monitored by acoustic emission. Sci. World J., 2013.","DOI":"10.1155\/2013\/869467"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bouzid, O.M., Tian, G.Y., Cumanan, K., and Moore, D. (2014). Structural Health Monitoring of Wind Turbine Blades\u202f: Acoustic Source Localization Using Wireless Sensor Networks. J. Sens., 2015.","DOI":"10.1155\/2015\/139695"},{"key":"ref_34","unstructured":"Kaiser, J. (1950). Results and Conclusions from Measurements of Sound in Metallic Materials under Tensile Stress: Technische Hochshule, Technische Hochshule."},{"key":"ref_35","unstructured":"Kaiser, J. (1950). Untersuchung \u00fcber das Auftreten von Ger\u00e4uschen beim Zugversuch. [Ph.D. Thesis, Fakult\u00e4t f\u00fcr Maschinenwesen und Elektrotechnik der Technischen Universit\u00e4t M\u00fcnchen (TUM)]."},{"key":"ref_36","unstructured":"Bray, D.E., and Stanley, R.K. (1966). Nondestructive Evaluation: A Tool in Design, Manufacturing and Service, CRP Press."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1187","DOI":"10.1617\/s11527-010-9640-6","article-title":"Recommendation of RILEM TC 212-ACD: Acoustic emission and related NDE techniques for crack detection and damage evaluation in concrete*","volume":"43","author":"Committee","year":"2010","journal-title":"Mater. Struct."},{"key":"ref_38","unstructured":"Strantza, M., De Baere, D., Rombouts, M., Clijsters, S., Vandendael, I., Terryn, H., Guillaume, P., and van Hemelrijck, D. (2014, January 8\u201311). 3D printing for intelligent metallic structures. Proceedings of the EWSHM-7th European Workshop on Structural Health Monitoring, Nantes, France."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"589","DOI":"10.1016\/S0007-8506(07)60206-6","article-title":"Rapid manufacturing and rapid tooling with Layer Manufacturing (LM) technologies, state of the art and future perspectives","volume":"52","author":"Levy","year":"2003","journal-title":"CIRP Ann. Manuf. Technol."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"300","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijfatigue.2012.11.011","article-title":"On the mechanical behaviour of titanium alloy TiAl6V4 manufactured by selective laser melting: Fatigue resistance and crack growth performance","volume":"48","author":"Leuders","year":"2013","journal-title":"Int. J. Fatigue"}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/15\/10\/26709\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T20:50:32Z","timestamp":1760215832000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/15\/10\/26709"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2015,10,21]]},"references-count":40,"journal-issue":{"issue":"10","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2015,10]]}},"alternative-id":["s151026709"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s151026709","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2015,10,21]]}}}