{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,11]],"date-time":"2026-06-11T05:29:53Z","timestamp":1781155793322,"version":"3.54.1"},"reference-count":50,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2015,12,23]],"date-time":"2015-12-23T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1450828800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100008530","name":"EFRE","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["TNA VIII-1\/2012"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["TNA VIII-1\/2012"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100008530","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>In this work we show the principle of optical 3D surface measurements based on the fringe projection technique for underwater applications. The challenges of underwater use of this technique are shown and discussed in comparison with the classical application. We describe an extended camera model which takes refraction effects into account as well as a proposal of an effective, low-effort calibration procedure for underwater optical stereo scanners. This calibration technique combines a classical air calibration based on the pinhole model with ray-based modeling and requires only a few underwater recordings of an object of known length and a planar surface. We demonstrate a new underwater 3D scanning device based on the fringe projection technique. It has a weight of about 10 kg and the maximal water depth for application of the scanner is 40 m. It covers an underwater measurement volume of 250 mm \u00d7 200 mm \u00d7 120 mm. The surface of the measurement objects is captured with a lateral resolution of 150 \u03bcm in a third of a second. Calibration evaluation results are presented and examples of first underwater measurements are given.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s16010013","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2015,12,23]],"date-time":"2015-12-23T07:10:20Z","timestamp":1450854620000},"page":"13","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":30,"title":["Underwater 3D Surface Measurement Using Fringe Projection Based Scanning Devices"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"given":"Christian","family":"Br\u00e4uer-Burchardt","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Fraunhofer Institute Applied Optics and Precision Engineering, Albert-Einstein-Str. 7, D-07745 Jena, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Matthias","family":"Heinze","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Fraunhofer Institute Applied Optics and Precision Engineering, Albert-Einstein-Str. 7, D-07745 Jena, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ingo","family":"Schmidt","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Fraunhofer Institute Applied Optics and Precision Engineering, Albert-Einstein-Str. 7, D-07745 Jena, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Peter","family":"K\u00fchmstedt","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Fraunhofer Institute Applied Optics and Precision Engineering, Albert-Einstein-Str. 7, D-07745 Jena, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Gunther","family":"Notni","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Fraunhofer Institute Applied Optics and Precision Engineering, Albert-Einstein-Str. 7, D-07745 Jena, Germany"},{"name":"Technical University Ilmenau, Ehrenbergstra\u00dfe 29, D-98693 Ilmenau, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2015,12,23]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Roman, C., Inglis, G., and Rutter, J. (2010, January 24\u201327). Application of structured light imaging for high resolution mapping of underwater archaeological sites. Proceedings of the 2010 IEEE OCEANS, Sydney, Australia.","DOI":"10.1109\/OCEANSSYD.2010.5603672"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Carneiro Da Silva, D. (2012). Special Applications of Photogrammetry, InTech.","DOI":"10.5772\/1946"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Eric, M., Kovacic, R., Berginc, G., Pugelj, M., Stopinsek, Z., and Solina, F. (November, January 28). The Impact of the Latest 3D Technologies on the Documentation of Underwater Heritage Sites. Proceedings of the IEEE Digital Heritage International Congress 2013, Marseille, France.","DOI":"10.1109\/DigitalHeritage.2013.6744765"},{"key":"ref_4","first-page":"95","article-title":"Low cost digital photogrammetry for underwater archaeological site survey and artifact insertion. The case study of the Dolia wreck in secche della Meloria-Livorno-Italia","volume":"34 Pt 5","author":"Canciani","year":"2003","journal-title":"Int. Arch. Photogramm. Remote Sens. Spat. Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"315","DOI":"10.1016\/S0165-7836(03)00080-8","article-title":"The accuracy and precision of underwater measurements of length and maximum body depth of southern bluefin tuna (Thunnus maccoyii) with a stereo\u2013video camera system","volume":"63","author":"Harvey","year":"2003","journal-title":"Fish. Res."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"327","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fishres.2006.08.017","article-title":"In situ measurement of fish body length using perspective-based remote stereo-video","volume":"82","author":"Dunbrack","year":"2006","journal-title":"Fish. Res."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"218","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aquaeng.2006.02.003","article-title":"Extracting fish size using dual underwater cameras","volume":"35","author":"Costa","year":"2006","journal-title":"Aquac. Eng."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"193","DOI":"10.1007\/s003380100157","article-title":"Three-dimensional morphometric measurements of reef corals using underwater photogrammetry techniques","volume":"20","author":"Bythell","year":"2001","journal-title":"Coral Reefs"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"547","DOI":"10.1117\/12.190098","article-title":"The use of a laser stripe illuminator for enhanced underwater viewing","volume":"2258","author":"Tetlow","year":"1994","journal-title":"Proc. SPIE"},{"key":"ref_10","first-page":"373","article-title":"Unterwasser-Photogrammetrie zur 3D-Rekonstruktion des Schiffswracks \u201cDar\u00dfer Kogge\u201d","volume":"5","author":"Korduan","year":"2003","journal-title":"Photogramm. Fernerkund. Geoinf."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"315","DOI":"10.1080\/14763140608522881","article-title":"Effects of light refraction on the accuracy of camera calibration and reconstruction in underwater motion analysis","volume":"5","author":"Kwon","year":"2006","journal-title":"Sports Biomech."},{"key":"ref_12","first-page":"212","article-title":"Perspective and non-perspective camera models in underwater imaging\u2014Overview and error analysis","volume":"Volume 7474","author":"Sedlazeck","year":"2011","journal-title":"Theoretical Foundations of Computer Vision"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"433","DOI":"10.1016\/j.isprsjprs.2010.05.004","article-title":"Photogrammetric modeling of underwater environments","volume":"65","author":"Telem","year":"2010","journal-title":"ISPRS J. Photogramm. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5991","DOI":"10.1364\/AO.40.005991","article-title":"Intercalibration method for underwater three-dimensional mapping laser line scan systems","volume":"40","author":"Moore","year":"2001","journal-title":"Appl. Opt."},{"key":"ref_15","unstructured":"Narasimhan, S.G., and Nayar, S.K. (2005, January 17\u201323). Structured Light Methods for Underwater Imaging: Light Stripe Scanning and Photometric Stereo. Proceedings of the 2005 MTS\/IEEE OCEANS, Washington, DC, USA."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"995","DOI":"10.1016\/j.optlaseng.2004.10.005","article-title":"A novel application of range-gated underwater laser imaging system (ULIS) in near-target turbid medium","volume":"43","author":"Tan","year":"2005","journal-title":"Opt. Lasers Eng."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Massot-Campos, M., and Oliver-Codina, G. (2014, January 2\u20135). Underwater laser-based structured light system for one-shot 3D reconstruction. Proceedings of the 5th Martech International Workshop on Marine Technology, Girona, Spain.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICSENS.2014.6985208"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"508","DOI":"10.1016\/j.isprsjprs.2011.02.009","article-title":"Experimentation of structured light and stereo vision for underwater 3D reconstruction","volume":"66","author":"Bruno","year":"2011","journal-title":"ISPRS J. Photogramm. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"801","DOI":"10.1016\/j.optlastec.2010.11.007","article-title":"Three-dimensional shape measurement for an underwater object based on two-dimensional grating pattern projection","volume":"43","author":"Zhang","year":"2011","journal-title":"Opt. Laser Technol."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11007","DOI":"10.3390\/s130811007","article-title":"A comparative analysis between active and passive techniques for underwater 3D reconstruction of close-range objects","volume":"13","author":"Bianco","year":"2013","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_21","unstructured":"McLeod, D., Jacobson, J., Hardy, M., and Embry, C. (2013, January 23\u201327). Autonomous inspection using an underwater 3D LiDAR. Proceedings of the Ocean in Common, San Diego, CA, USA."},{"key":"ref_22","unstructured":"H\u00f6hle, J. (1971). Zur Theorie und Praxis der Unterwasser-Photogrammetrie. [Ph.D. Thesis, Bayerische Akademie der Wissenschaften]."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"748","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1477-9730.1976.tb00852.x","article-title":"Underwater photogrammetry","volume":"8","author":"Moore","year":"1976","journal-title":"Photogramm. Rec."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sedlazeck, A., Koser, K., and Koch, R. (2009, January 11\u201314). 3D reconstruction based on underwater video from rov kiel 6000 considering underwater imaging conditions. Proceedings of the 2009 OCEANS\u2014Europe, Bremen, Germany.","DOI":"10.1109\/OCEANSE.2009.5278305"},{"key":"ref_25","unstructured":"Schechner, Y.Y., and Karpel, N. (July, January 27). Clear underwater vision. Proceedings of the 2004 IEEE Computer Society Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition, Washington, DC, USA."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"163","DOI":"10.1080\/01490419709388103","article-title":"Digital underwater photogrammetric system for large scale underwater spatial information acquisition","volume":"20","author":"Li","year":"1996","journal-title":"Mar. Geod."},{"key":"ref_27","unstructured":"Gr\u00fcn, A., and Kahmen, H. (1995). Optical 3-D Measurement Techniques III, Wichmann Verlag."},{"key":"ref_28","unstructured":"Sedlazeck, A., and Koch, R. (September, January 29). Calibration of housing parameters for underwater stereo-camera rigs. Proceedings of the 22nd British Machine Vision Conference, Dundee, UK."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kawahara, R., Nobuhara, S., and Matsuyama, T. (2013, January 2\u20138). A Pixel-wise Varifocal Camera Model for Efficient Forward Projection and Linear Extrinsic Calibration of Underwater Cameras with Flat Housings. Proceedings of the 2013 IEEE International Conference on Computer Vision Workshops, Sydney, Australia.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICCVW.2013.112"},{"key":"ref_30","first-page":"792","article-title":"Design and calibration of an underwater stereo-video system for the monitoring of marine fauna populations","volume":"32","author":"Shortis","year":"1998","journal-title":"International Archives Photogramm. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"73","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1477-9730.1986.tb00539.x","article-title":"On the calibration of underwater cameras","volume":"12","author":"Fryer","year":"1986","journal-title":"Photogramm. Rec."},{"key":"ref_32","unstructured":"Bryant, M., Wettergreen, D., Abdallah, S., and Zelinsky, A. (September, January 30). Robust camera calibration for an autonomous underwater vehicle. Proceedings of the Australian Conference on Robotics and Automation (ACRA 2000), Melbourne, Australia."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lavest, J.M., Rives, G., and Lapreste, J.T. (July, January 26). Underwater camera calibration. Proceedings of the 6th European Conference on Computer Vision (ECCV 2000), Dublin, Ireland.","DOI":"10.1007\/3-540-45053-X_42"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"245","DOI":"10.1007\/s00138-002-0112-z","article-title":"Dry camera calibration for underwater applications","volume":"13","author":"Lavest","year":"2003","journal-title":"Mach. Vis. Appl."},{"key":"ref_35","unstructured":"Luhmann, T., Robson, S., Kyle, S., and Harley, I. (2006). Close Range Photogrammetry, Wiley Whittles Publishing."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"119","DOI":"10.1023\/B:VISI.0000043754.56350.10","article-title":"The raxel imaging model and ray-based calibration","volume":"61","author":"Grossberg","year":"2005","journal-title":"Int. J. Comput. Vis."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5851","DOI":"10.1364\/AO.49.005851","article-title":"Vision ray calibration for the quantitative geometric description of general imaging and projection optics in metrology","volume":"49","author":"Bothe","year":"2010","journal-title":"Appl. Opt."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6565","DOI":"10.1364\/AO.38.006565","article-title":"Three-Dimensional Vision Based on a Combination of Gray-Code and Phase-Shift Light Projection: Analysis and Compensation of the Systematic Errors","volume":"38","author":"Sansoni","year":"1999","journal-title":"Appl. Opt."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"159","DOI":"10.1117\/1.602347","article-title":"Theory and arrangements of self-calibrating whole-body three-dimensional measurement systems using fringe projection techniques","volume":"39","author":"Schreiber","year":"2000","journal-title":"Opt. Eng."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"149","DOI":"10.1016\/j.optlaseng.2009.03.008","article-title":"Recent progresses on real-time 3D shape measurement using digital fringe projection techniques","volume":"48","author":"Zhang","year":"2010","journal-title":"Opt. Lasers Eng."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Schaffer, M., Gro\u00dfe, M., Harendt, B., and Kowarschik, R. (2014). Statistical patterns: An approach for high-speed and high-accuracy shape measurements. Opt. Eng., 53.","DOI":"10.1117\/1.OE.53.11.112205"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2666","DOI":"10.1016\/j.patcog.2010.03.004","article-title":"A state of the art in structured light patterns for surface profilometry","volume":"43","author":"Salvi","year":"2010","journal-title":"Pattern Recognit."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yau, T., Gong, M., and Yang, Y.H. (2013, January 23\u201328). Underwater Camera Calibration Using Wavelength Triangulation. Proceedings of the 2013 IEEE Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition (CVPR), Portland, OR, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/CVPR.2013.323"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Br\u00e4uer-Burchardt, C., K\u00fchmstedt, P., and Notni, G. (2015, January 2\u20134). Combination of air- and water-calibration for a fringe projection based underwater 3D-Scanner. Proceedings of the 16th International Conference (CAIP 2015), Valletta, Malta.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-23117-4_5"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chen, X., and Yang, Y.H. (2014, January 23\u201328). Two view camera housing parameters calibration for multi-layer flat refractive interface. Proceedings of the 2014 IEEE Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition (CVPR), Columbus, OH, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/CVPR.2014.74"},{"key":"ref_46","unstructured":"The Association of German Engineers (VDI) (2008). VDI\/VDE Guidelines, Parts 1\u20133, VDI. VDI\/VDE 2634."},{"key":"ref_47","unstructured":"Br\u00e4uer-Burchardt, C., K\u00fchmstedt, P., and Notni, G. (2012, January 14\u201316). Ultra-Precise Hybrid Lens Distortion Correction. Proceedings of the International Conference on Image and Vision Computing (ICIVC 2012), Venice, Italy."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Munkelt, C., Br\u00e4uer-Burchardt, C., K\u00fchmstedt, P., Schmidt, I., and Notni, G. (2007, January 18\u201322). Cordless hand-held optical 3D sensor. Proceedings of the SPIE Optical Metrology 2007, Munich, Germany.","DOI":"10.1117\/12.726121"},{"key":"ref_49","unstructured":"Eos e-Manufacturing Solutions. Available online: http:\/\/www.eos.info\/material-p."},{"key":"ref_50","unstructured":"4h Jena. Available online: http:\/\/www.4h-jena.de\/."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/16\/1\/13\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T20:54:39Z","timestamp":1760216079000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/16\/1\/13"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2015,12,23]]},"references-count":50,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2016,1]]}},"alternative-id":["s16010013"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s16010013","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2015,12,23]]}}}