{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,12]],"date-time":"2026-05-12T16:17:31Z","timestamp":1778602651774,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":45,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2016,3,9]],"date-time":"2016-03-09T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1457481600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["61403301"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["61403301"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["61221063"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["61221063"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100002858","name":"China Postdoctoral Science Foundation","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["2014M560783"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2014M560783"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100002858","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"Special Foundation of China Postdoctoral Science","award":["2015T81032"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2015T81032"]}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100007128","name":"Natural Science Foundation of Shaanxi Province","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["2015JQ6216"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2015JQ6216"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100007128","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"Application Foundation Research Program of SuZhou","award":["SYG201444"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["SYG201444"]}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100012226","name":"Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["xjj2015115"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["xjj2015115"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100012226","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The growing trend of using smartphones as personal computing platforms to access and store private information has stressed the demand for secure and usable authentication mechanisms. This paper investigates the feasibility and applicability of using motion-sensor behavior data for user authentication on smartphones. For each sample of the passcode, sensory data from motion sensors are analyzed to extract descriptive and intensive features for accurate and fine-grained characterization of users\u2019 passcode-input actions. One-class learning methods are applied to the feature space for performing user authentication. Analyses are conducted using data from 48 participants with 129,621 passcode samples across various operational scenarios and different types of smartphones. Extensive experiments are included to examine the efficacy of the proposed approach, which achieves a false-rejection rate of 6.85% and a false-acceptance rate of 5.01%. Additional experiments on usability with respect to passcode length, sensitivity with respect to training sample size, scalability with respect to number of users, and flexibility with respect to screen size were provided to further explore the effectiveness and practicability. The results suggest that sensory data could provide useful authentication information, and this level of performance approaches sufficiency for two-factor authentication on smartphones. Our dataset is publicly available to facilitate future research.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s16030345","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2016,3,9]],"date-time":"2016-03-09T10:38:02Z","timestamp":1457519882000},"page":"345","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":48,"title":["Performance Analysis of Motion-Sensor Behavior for User Authentication on Smartphones"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"given":"Chao","family":"Shen","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Electronic and Information Engineering, Xi\u2019an Jiaotong University, 710049 Xi\u2019an, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Tianwen","family":"Yu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Electronic and Information Engineering, Xi\u2019an Jiaotong University, 710049 Xi\u2019an, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Sheng","family":"Yuan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Electronic and Information Engineering, Xi\u2019an Jiaotong University, 710049 Xi\u2019an, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Yunpeng","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Electronic and Information Engineering, Xi\u2019an Jiaotong University, 710049 Xi\u2019an, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Xiaohong","family":"Guan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Electronic and Information Engineering, Xi\u2019an Jiaotong University, 710049 Xi\u2019an, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2016,3,9]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kim, Y., Oh, T., and Kim, J. (2015). Analyzing User Awareness of Privacy Data Leak in Mobile Applications. Mob. Inf. Syst.","DOI":"10.1155\/2015\/369489"},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"Achara, J.P., Baudot, F., Castelluccia, C., Delcroix, G., and Roca, V. Mobilitics: Analyzing Privacy Leaks in Smartphones. Available online: http:\/\/ercim-news.ercim.eu\/en93\/special\/mobilitics-analyzing-privacy-leaks-in-smartphones."},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"Romero, I. Report: Smartphone Theft on the Rise. Available online: http:\/\/www.ksat.com\/news\/crime-fighters\/report-smartphone-theft-on-the-rise."},{"key":"ref_4","unstructured":"Li, Z., Han, W., and Xu, W. (2014, January 20\u201322). A large-scale empirical analysis of Chinese web passwords. Proceedings of the Twenty-third USENIX Security Symposium, San Diego, CA, USA."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mazurek, M.L., Komanduri, S., Vidas, T., Bauer, L., Christin, N., Cranor, L.F., Kelley, P.G., Shay, R., and Ur, B. (2013, January 4\u20138). Measuring password guessability for an entire university. Proceedings of the 2013 ACM SIGSAC Conference on Computer & Communications Security, Berlin, Germany.","DOI":"10.1145\/2508859.2516726"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Xu, Z., Bai, K., and Zhu, S. (2012, January 16\u201318). Taplogger: Inferring user inputs on smartphone touchscreens using onboard motion sensors. Proceedings of the Fifth ACM Conference on Security and Privacy in Wireless and Mobile Networks, Tucson, AZ, USA.","DOI":"10.1145\/2185448.2185465"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"143","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cose.2015.06.013","article-title":"Input extraction via motion-sensor behavior analysis on smartphones","volume":"53","author":"Shen","year":"2015","journal-title":"Comput. Secur."},{"key":"ref_8","unstructured":"Aviv, A.J., Gibson, K., Mossop, E., Blaze, M., and Smith, J.M. (2010, January 9). Smudge attacks on smartphone touch screens. Proceedings of the Fourth Usenix Workshop on Offensive Technologies, Washington, WA, USA."},{"key":"ref_9","unstructured":"Fingerprint Biometrics Hacked Again. Available online: http:\/\/www.ccc.de\/en\/updates\/2014\/ursel."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"23168","DOI":"10.3390\/s150923168","article-title":"Performance evaluation of smartphone inertial sensors measurement for range of motion","volume":"15","author":"Mourcou","year":"2015","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18901","DOI":"10.3390\/s150818901","article-title":"Tracking the evolution of smartphone sensing for monitoring human movement","volume":"15","author":"Rosario","year":"2015","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bonneau, J. (2012, January 20\u201323). The science of guessing: Analyzing an anonymized corpus of 70 million passwords. Proceedings of the Thirty-third IEEE Symposium on Security and Privacy, San Francisco, CA, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/SP.2012.49"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zakaria, N.H., Griffiths, D., Brostoff, S., and Yan, J. (2011, January 20\u201322). Shoulder surfing defense for recall-based graphical passwords. Proceedings of the Seventh Symposium on Usable Privacy and Security, Pittsburgh, PA, USA.","DOI":"10.1145\/2078827.2078835"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sun, J., Zhang, R., Zhang, J., and Zhang, Y. (2014, January 29\u201331). Touchin: Sightless two-factor authentication on multi-touch mobile devices. Proceedings of the IEEE Conference on Communications and Network Security, San Francisco, CA, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/CNS.2014.6997513"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sae-Bae, N., Ahmed, K., Isbister, K., and Memon, N. (2012, January 5\u201310). Biometric-rich gestures: A novel approach to authentication on multi-touch devices. Proceedings of the SIGCHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems, Austin, TX, USA.","DOI":"10.1145\/2207676.2208543"},{"key":"ref_16","unstructured":"Bo, C., Zhang, L., Li, X.Y., Huang, Q., and Wang, Y. (October, January 30). Silentsense: Silent user identification via touch and movement behavioral biometrics. Proceedings of the Nineteenth Annual International Conference on Mobile Computing & Networking, Miami, FL, USA."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"498","DOI":"10.1109\/TIFS.2015.2503258","article-title":"Performance analysis of touch-interaction behavior for active smartphone authentication","volume":"11","author":"Shen","year":"2016","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Inf. Forensics Secur."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"542","DOI":"10.1002\/sec.1061","article-title":"Introducing touchstroke: Keystroke-based authentication system for smartphones","volume":"9","author":"Kambourakis","year":"2014","journal-title":"Secur. Commun. Netw."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Buschek, D., Luca, A.D., and Alt, F. (2015, January 18\u201323). Improving Accuracy, Applicability and Usability of Keystroke Biometrics on Mobile Touchscreen Devices. Proceedings of the ACM SIGCHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems, Seoul, South Korea.","DOI":"10.1145\/2702123.2702252"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5317","DOI":"10.3390\/s130405317","article-title":"Classification of sporting activities using smartphone accelerometers","volume":"13","author":"Mitchell","year":"2013","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nickel, C., Wirtl, T., and Busch, C. (2012, January 18\u201320). Authentication of smartphone users based on the way they walk using k-NN algorithm. Proceedings of the 2012 Eighth International Conference on Intelligent Information Hiding and Multimedia Signal Processing, Piraeus-Athens, Greece.","DOI":"10.1109\/IIH-MSP.2012.11"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lin, C.C., Liang, D., Chang, C.C., and Yang, C.H. (2012, January 20\u201322). A new non-intrusive authentication method based on the orientation sensor for smartphone users. Proceedings of the 2012 IEEE Sixth International Conference on Software Security and Reliability, Gaithersburg, MD, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/SERE.2012.37"},{"key":"ref_23","unstructured":"Zhu, J., Wu, P., Wang, X., and Zhang, J. (2013, January 28\u201331). SenSec: Mobile security through passive sensing. Proceedings of the IEEE International Conference on Computing, Networking and Communications, San Diego, CA, USA."},{"key":"ref_24","unstructured":"Lee, W.H., and Lee, R.B. (2015, January 9\u201311). Multi-sensor authentication to improve smartphone security. Proceedings of the International Conference on Information Systems Security and Privacy, Angers, France."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Conti, M., Zachia-Zlatea, I., and Crispo, B. (2011, January 22\u201324). Mind how you answer me!: transparently authenticating the user of a smartphone when answering or placing a call. Proceedings of the Sixth ACM Symposium on Information, Computer and Communications Security, Hong Kong, China.","DOI":"10.1145\/1966913.1966945"},{"key":"ref_26","unstructured":"Giuffrida, C., Majdanik, K., Conti, M., and Bos, H. (2014). Detection of Intrusions and Malware, and Vulnerability Assessment, Springer International Publishing."},{"key":"ref_27","unstructured":"Maxion, R. (2011). Dependable and Historic Computing, Springer."},{"key":"ref_28","unstructured":"Shen, C., Yu, T.W., Yuan, S., Li, Y.P., and Guan, X.H. Motion-Sensor Data for Smartphone Authentication. Available online: http:\/\/nskeylab.xjtu.edu.cn\/people\/cshen\/?p=327."},{"key":"ref_29","unstructured":"Developers A. Android SDK, Google. Available online: http:\/\/developer.android.com\/index.html."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bours, P., and Fullu, C.J. (2009, January 12\u201314). A login system using mouse dynamics. Proceedings of the Fifth International Conference on Intelligent Information Hiding and Multimedia Signal Processing, Kyoto, Japan.","DOI":"10.1109\/IIH-MSP.2009.77"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1166","DOI":"10.1109\/TPAMI.2003.1227991","article-title":"Java-based Internet biometric authentication system","volume":"25","author":"Everitt","year":"2003","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Pattern Anal."},{"key":"ref_32","unstructured":"Braun, M.L., Buhmann, J.M., and Muuller, K.R. (2006). Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems 19, MIT Press."},{"key":"ref_33","unstructured":"Lehmann, E.L., and Romano, J.P. (2008). Testing Statistical Hypotheses, Wiley."},{"key":"ref_34","unstructured":"Tax, D. (2001). One-Class Classification: Concept-Learning in the Absence of Counter-Examples. [Ph.D. Thesis, Delft University of Technology]."},{"key":"ref_35","first-page":"275","article-title":"Comparison of dimension reduction methods for automated essay grading","volume":"11","author":"Kakkonen","year":"2008","journal-title":"Educ. Tech. Soc."},{"key":"ref_36","first-page":"1485","article-title":"Robustness and regularization of support vector machines","volume":"10","author":"Xu","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Mach. Learn. Res."},{"key":"ref_37","unstructured":"Developers A. Android Debugging Tool, Google. Available online: http:\/\/developer.android.com\/tools\/help\/adb.html."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1145\/2333112.2333114","article-title":"Graphical passwords: Learning from the first twelve years","volume":"44","author":"Biddle","year":"2012","journal-title":"ACM Comput. Surv."},{"key":"ref_39","unstructured":"Frank, E., Paynter, G.W., Witten, I.H., Gutwin, C., and Nevill-Manning, C.G. (August, January 31). Domain-specific keyphrase extraction. Proceedings of the Sixteenth International Joint Conference on Artificial Intelligence, Stockholm, Sweden."},{"key":"ref_40","unstructured":"Wackerly, D., Mendenhall, W., and Scheaffer, R. (2007). Cengage Learning, Nelson Education."},{"key":"ref_41","unstructured":"CENELEC (2002). Technical Body CLC\/TC 79, European Committee for Electrotechnical Standardization."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"22","DOI":"10.1109\/TKDE.2010.36","article-title":"Classification using streaming random forests","volume":"23","author":"Abdulsalam","year":"2011","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Knowl. Data Eng."},{"key":"ref_43","unstructured":"Aggarwal, C.C. (2014). Data Classification: Algorithms and Applications, Springer."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"269","DOI":"10.1109\/TIFS.2011.2168213","article-title":"Biometric template protection using universal background models: An application to online signature","volume":"7","author":"Rua","year":"2012","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Inf. Forensics Secur."},{"key":"ref_45","unstructured":"Ballard, L., Monrose, F., and Lopresti, D. (August, January 31). Biometric authentication revisited: Understanding the impact of wolves in sheep's clothing. Proceedings of the 15 Usenix Security Symposium, Vancouver, BC, Canada."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/16\/3\/345\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T19:20:23Z","timestamp":1760210423000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/16\/3\/345"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2016,3,9]]},"references-count":45,"journal-issue":{"issue":"3","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2016,3]]}},"alternative-id":["s16030345"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s16030345","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2016,3,9]]}}}