{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,2]],"date-time":"2026-06-02T09:35:16Z","timestamp":1780392916351,"version":"3.54.1"},"reference-count":26,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2016,4,22]],"date-time":"2016-04-22T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1461283200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Recently, commercial unmanned aerial systems (UAS) have gained popularity. However, these UAS are potential threats to people in terms of safety in public places, such as public parks or stadiums. To reduce such threats, we consider a design, modeling, and evaluation of a cost-efficient sensor system that detects and tracks small UAS. In this research, we focus on discovering the best sensor deployments by simulating different types and numbers of sensors in a designated area, which provide reasonable detection rates at low costs. Also, the system should cover the crowded areas more thoroughly than vacant areas to reduce direct threats to people underneath. This research study utilized the Agent-Based Modeling (ABM) technique to model a system consisting of independent and heterogeneous agents that interact with each other. Our previous work presented the ability to apply ABM to analyze the sensor configurations with two types of radars in terms of cost-efficiency. The results from the ABM simulation provide a list of candidate configurations and deployments that can be referred to for applications in the real world environment.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s16040575","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2016,4,25]],"date-time":"2016-04-25T09:55:00Z","timestamp":1461578100000},"page":"575","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":5,"title":["Design and Analysis of Cost-Efficient Sensor Deployment for Tracking Small UAS with Agent-Based Modeling"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"given":"Sangmi","family":"Shin","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"M2M Laboratory, Computer and Information Technology, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Seongha","family":"Park","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"M2M Laboratory, Computer and Information Technology, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yongho","family":"Kim","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"M2M Laboratory, Computer and Information Technology, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Eric","family":"Matson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"M2M Laboratory, Computer and Information Technology, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2016,4,22]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Leonnig, C.D., and Whitlock, C. Drone Incident at White House Highlights Long-Studied, Still-Unsolved Security Gap. Available online: https:\/\/www.washingtonpost.com\/politics\/drone-incident-at-white-house-highlights-long-studied-still-unsolved-security-gap\/2015\/01\/26\/ed2e7f9e-a594\u201311e4-a7c2\u201303d37af98440_story.html."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"Schmidt, M.S., and Shear, M.D. A Drone, Too Small for Radar to Detect, Rattles the White House. Available online: http:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2015\/01\/27\/us\/white-house-drone.html?_r=0."},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"Phantom 3 Series. Available online: http:\/\/www.dji.com\/products\/phantom-3-series."},{"key":"ref_4","unstructured":"AR.Drone 2.0 Parrot New WI-FI Quadricopter. Available online: http:\/\/ardrone2.parrot.com\/."},{"key":"ref_5","unstructured":"IRIS+-3DRobotics Inc.. Available online: http:\/\/store.3drobotics.com\/products\/iris."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"490","DOI":"10.1016\/j.procs.2015.07.240","article-title":"Analyze Cost-Efficient System for Small UAS Tracking Using Agent-Based Modeling","volume":"56","author":"Shin","year":"2015","journal-title":"Procedia Comput. Sci."},{"key":"ref_7","unstructured":"Lyengar, S.S., and Brooks, R.R. (2012). Distributed Sensor Network, Second Edition: Sensor Networking and Applications, CRC Press. [2nd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1475","DOI":"10.1007\/s11277-014-2094-3","article-title":"Survey on Coverage Problems in Wireless Sensor Networks","volume":"80","author":"Sangwan","year":"2015","journal-title":"Wirel. Pers. Commun."},{"key":"ref_9","first-page":"1","article-title":"Survey of Deployment Algorithms in Wireless Sensor Networks: Coverage and Connectivity Issues and Challenges","volume":"1","author":"Khoufi","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. J. Auton. Adapt. Commun. Syst."},{"key":"ref_10","first-page":"1609","article-title":"Sensor placement for effective coverage and surveillance in distributed sensor networks","volume":"3","author":"Dhillon","year":"2003","journal-title":"Wirel. Commun. Netw."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gu, Y., Ji, Y., Li, J., and Zhao, B. (December, January 30). Fundamental results on target coverage problem in wireless sensor networks. Proceedings of the Global Telecommunications Conference (GLOBECOM 2009), Honolulu, HI, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/GLOCOM.2009.5425300"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zou, Y., and Chakrabarty, K. (April, January 30). Sensor Deployment and Target Localization Based on Virtual Forces. Proceedings of the INFOCOM 2003 Twenty-Second Annual Joint Conference of the IEEE Computer and Communications, San Francisco, CA, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/INFCOM.2003.1208965"},{"key":"ref_13","first-page":"43","article-title":"A Near-Optimal Sensor Placement Algorithm to Achieve Complete Coverage\/Discrimination in Sensor Networks","volume":"9","author":"Lin","year":"2005","journal-title":"IEEE Commun. Lett."},{"key":"ref_14","first-page":"151","article-title":"Tutorial on agent-based modeling and simulation","volume":"4","author":"Macal","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Simul. Oper. Res. Soc."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Siddiqa, A., Niazi, M., Mustafa, F., Bokhari, H., Hussain, A., Akram, N., Shaheen, S., Ahmed, F., and Iqbal, S. (2009, January 15\u201316). A New Hybrid Agent-Based Modeling & Simulation Decision Support System For Breast Cancer Data Analysis. Proceedings of the International Conference on Information and Communication Technologies (ICICT'09), Karachi, Pakistan.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICICT.2009.5267202"},{"key":"ref_16","unstructured":"Axtell, R. (2000). Why Agents?: On the Varied Motivations for Agent Computing in the Social Sciences, Center on Social and Economic Dynamics, The Brookings Institution."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7280","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.082080899","article-title":"Agent-Based Modeling: Methods And Techniques for Simulating Human Systems","volume":"99","author":"Bonabeau","year":"2002","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. Oper. Res. Soc."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Heppenstall, A.J., Crooks, A.T., See, L.M., and Batty, M. (2011). Agent-Based Models of Geographical Systems, Springer Science & Business Media.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-90-481-8927-4"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"404","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2010.2068044","article-title":"A Novel Agent-Based Simulation Framework for Sensing in Complex Adaptive Environments","volume":"11","author":"Niazi","year":"2011","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"166","DOI":"10.1109\/MCOM.2009.4804403","article-title":"Agent based tools for modeling and simulation of self-organization in peer-to-peer, ad-hoc and other complex networks","volume":"47","author":"Niazi","year":"2009","journal-title":"IEEE Commun. Mag."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hamzi, A., and Koudil, M. (2012, January 11\u201316). Agent based platform for the design and simulation of wireless sensor networks. Proceedings of the IEEE International Conference on Computer, Information and Telecommunication Systems (CITS), Amman, Jordan.","DOI":"10.1109\/CITS.2012.6220372"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lin, J., Sedigh, S., and Miller, A. (2010, January 19\u201323). Modeling Cyber-Physical Systems with Semantic Agents. Proceedings of the IEEE 34th Annual Computer Software and Applications Conference Workshops (COMPSACW), Seoul, Korea.","DOI":"10.1109\/COMPSACW.2010.13"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Batool, K., Niazi, M.A., Sadik, S., and Shakil, A.R.R. (2014, January 22\u201325). Towards modeling complex wireless sensor networks using agents and networks: A systematic approach. Proceedings of the IEEE Region 10 Conference, Bangkok, Thailand.","DOI":"10.1109\/TENCON.2014.7022378"},{"key":"ref_24","unstructured":"Hosseingholizadeh, A., and Abhari, A. (2009, January 22\u201327). A New Agent-Based Solution for Wireless Sensor Networks Management. Proceedings of the Spring Simulation Multiconference, San Diego, CA, USA."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Valavanis, K.P., and Vachtsevanos, G.J. (2014). Handbook of Unmanned Aerial Vehicles, Springer Science & Business Media.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-90-481-9707-1"},{"key":"ref_26","unstructured":"Corke, P. (2011). Robotics, Vision and Control: Fundamental Algorithms in MATLAB, Springer Science & Business Media."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/16\/4\/575\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T19:22:42Z","timestamp":1760210562000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/16\/4\/575"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2016,4,22]]},"references-count":26,"journal-issue":{"issue":"4","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2016,4]]}},"alternative-id":["s16040575"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s16040575","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2016,4,22]]}}}