{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,1]],"date-time":"2026-06-01T23:22:12Z","timestamp":1780356132061,"version":"3.54.1"},"reference-count":31,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"8","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2016,8,10]],"date-time":"2016-08-10T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1470787200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Capes Foundation, Ministry of Education of Brazil","award":["-"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["-"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Power transformers are crucial in an electric power system. Failures in transformers can affect the quality and cause interruptions in the power supply. Partial discharges are a phenomenon that can cause failures in the transformers if not properly monitored. Typically, the monitoring requires high-cost corrective maintenance or even interruptions of the power system. Therefore, the development of online non-invasive monitoring systems to detect partial discharges in power transformers has great relevance since it can reduce significant maintenance costs. Although commercial acoustic emission sensors have been used to monitor partial discharges in power transformers, they still represent a significant cost. In order to overcome this drawback, this paper presents a study of the feasibility of low-cost piezoelectric sensors to identify partial discharges in mineral insulating oil of power transformers. The analysis of the feasibility of the proposed low-cost sensor is performed by its comparison with a commercial acoustic emission sensor commonly used to detect partial discharges. The comparison between the responses in the time and frequency domain of both sensors was carried out and the experimental results indicate that the proposed piezoelectric sensors have great potential in the detection of acoustic waves generated by partial discharges in insulation oil, contributing for the popularization of this noninvasive technique.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s16081266","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2016,8,10]],"date-time":"2016-08-10T10:14:10Z","timestamp":1470824050000},"page":"1266","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":64,"title":["Partial Discharge Monitoring in Power Transformers Using Low-Cost Piezoelectric Sensors"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4581-1459","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Bruno","family":"Castro","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculdade de Engenharia, UNESP-Univ. Estadual Paulista, Bauru, Departamento de Engenharia El\u00e9trica, Av. Eng. Luiz Edmundo C. Coube 14-01, 17033-360 Bauru\u2013SP, Brazil"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Guilherme","family":"Clerice","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculdade de Engenharia, UNESP-Univ. Estadual Paulista, Bauru, Departamento de Engenharia El\u00e9trica, Av. Eng. Luiz Edmundo C. Coube 14-01, 17033-360 Bauru\u2013SP, Brazil"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4294-5198","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Caio","family":"Ramos","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculdade de Engenharia, UNESP-Univ. Estadual Paulista, Bauru, Departamento de Engenharia El\u00e9trica, Av. Eng. Luiz Edmundo C. Coube 14-01, 17033-360 Bauru\u2013SP, Brazil"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Andr\u00e9","family":"Andreoli","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculdade de Engenharia, UNESP-Univ. Estadual Paulista, Bauru, Departamento de Engenharia El\u00e9trica, Av. Eng. Luiz Edmundo C. Coube 14-01, 17033-360 Bauru\u2013SP, Brazil"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1200-4354","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Fabricio","family":"Baptista","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculdade de Engenharia, UNESP-Univ. Estadual Paulista, Bauru, Departamento de Engenharia El\u00e9trica, Av. Eng. Luiz Edmundo C. Coube 14-01, 17033-360 Bauru\u2013SP, Brazil"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Fernando","family":"Campos","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculdade de Engenharia, UNESP-Univ. Estadual Paulista, Bauru, Departamento de Engenharia El\u00e9trica, Av. Eng. Luiz Edmundo C. Coube 14-01, 17033-360 Bauru\u2013SP, Brazil"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jos\u00e9","family":"Ulson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculdade de Engenharia, UNESP-Univ. Estadual Paulista, Bauru, Departamento de Engenharia El\u00e9trica, Av. Eng. Luiz Edmundo C. Coube 14-01, 17033-360 Bauru\u2013SP, Brazil"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2016,8,10]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"29434","DOI":"10.3390\/s151129434","article-title":"Study on miniaturized UHF antennas for partial discharge detection in high-voltage electrical equipment","volume":"15","author":"Liu","year":"2015","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3408","DOI":"10.3390\/s140203408","article-title":"Inductive sensor performance in partial discharges and noise separation by means of spectral power ratios","volume":"14","author":"Robles","year":"2014","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.1109\/57.63057","article-title":"Partial discharge: Overview and signal generation","volume":"6","author":"Boggs","year":"1990","journal-title":"IEEE Electr. Insul. Mag."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mohammadi, E., Niroomand, M., Rezaeian, M., and Amini, Z. (2009, January 18\u201322). Partial discharge localization and classification using acoustic emission analysis in power transformer. Proceedings of the 31st International Telecommunications Energy Conference (INTELEC 2009), Incheon, Korea.","DOI":"10.1109\/INTLEC.2009.5351926"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Vizureanu, P. (2012). Advances in Expert Systems, INTECH.","DOI":"10.5772\/3351"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"660","DOI":"10.1016\/j.measurement.2012.09.005","article-title":"Using a new generation of piezoelectric sensors for partial discharge detection","volume":"46","author":"Danouj","year":"2013","journal-title":"Measurement"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7360","DOI":"10.3390\/s150407360","article-title":"Application of HFCT and UHF sensors in on-line partial discharge measurements for insulation diagnosis of high voltage equipment","volume":"15","author":"Garnacho","year":"2015","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1976","DOI":"10.1109\/TPWRD.2004.833923","article-title":"The analysis of ultrasonic signals by partial discharge and noise from the transformer","volume":"20","author":"Kweon","year":"2005","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Power Deliv."},{"key":"ref_9","unstructured":"Veloso, G.F.C., da Silva, L.E.B., Lambert-Torres, G., and Pinto, J.O.P. (2006, January 9\u201313). Localization of Partial Discharges in Transformers by the Analysis of the Acoustic Emission. Proceedings of IEEE International Symposium on Industrial Electronics, Montreal, QC, Canada."},{"key":"ref_10","unstructured":"(2000). High-Voltage Test Techniques-Partial Discharge Measurement, IEC Publication. [2nd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_11","unstructured":"Krueger, F.H. (1989). Partial Discharge Detection in High-Voltage Equipment, Butterworth-Heinemann."},{"key":"ref_12","first-page":"91","article-title":"Characterization of partial discharges in transformer oil insulation under AC and DC voltage using acoustic emission technique","volume":"58","author":"Sarathi","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Electr. Eng."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"34","DOI":"10.1109\/57.156943","article-title":"Partial Discharge\u2013Part XIV: Acoustic Partial Discharge Detection\u2013Practical Application","volume":"8","author":"Lundgaard","year":"1992","journal-title":"IEEE Electr. Insul. Mag."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"891","DOI":"10.1109\/TDEI.2005.1522184","article-title":"Partial discharge diagnostics and electrical equipment insulation condition assessment","volume":"12","author":"Stone","year":"2005","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Dielectr. Electr. Insul."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"196","DOI":"10.1109\/TDEI.2005.1430390","article-title":"Comment concerning the rise times of partial discharge pulses","volume":"12","author":"Bartnikas","year":"2005","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Dielectr. Electr. Insul."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"214","DOI":"10.1109\/TDEI.2009.4784570","article-title":"Application possibilities of artificial neural networks for recognizing partial discharges measured by the acoustic emission method","volume":"16","author":"Boczar","year":"2009","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Dielectr. Electr. Insul."},{"key":"ref_17","unstructured":"Markalous, S.M. (2006). Detection and Location of Partial Discharges in Power Transformers Using Acoustic and Electromagnetic Signals. [Ph.D. Thesis, Stuttgart University]."},{"key":"ref_18","first-page":"41","article-title":"Acoustic measurements of partial discharge signals","volume":"21","author":"Phung","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Electr. Electron. Eng."},{"key":"ref_19","unstructured":"(1987). IEEE Standard on Piezoelectricity: An American National Standard, IEEE-ANSI."},{"key":"ref_20","unstructured":"R15I-AST Sensor-Integral Preamplifier Sensor. Available online: http:\/\/www.physicalacoustics.com\/content\/literature\/sensors\/Model_R15I-AST.pdf."},{"key":"ref_21","unstructured":"Piezoelectric Sound Components. Available online: www.murata.com."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1007\/s10921-015-0299-3","article-title":"Damage identification in active plates with indices based on Gaussian confidence ellipses obtained of the electromechanical admittance","volume":"34","author":"Tinoco","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Nondestruct. Eval."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"220","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sna.2015.11.031","article-title":"Experimental analysis of the feasibility of low-cost piezoelectric diaphragms in impedance-based SHM applications","volume":"238","author":"Freitas","year":"2016","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators A Phys."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"317","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sna.2015.09.027","article-title":"High sensitivity piezoelectric sensors using flexible PZT thick-film for shock tube pressure testing","volume":"235","author":"Liang","year":"2015","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators A Phys."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2442","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2013.2256121","article-title":"Impedance-based temperature sensing with piezoceramic devices","volume":"13","author":"Ilg","year":"2013","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1208","DOI":"10.3390\/s140101208","article-title":"An experimental study on the effect of temperature on piezoelectric sensors for impedance-based structural health monitoring","volume":"14","author":"Baptista","year":"2014","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_27","unstructured":"(2015). ASTM E976-15, Standard Guide for Determining the Reproducibility of Acoustic Emission Sensor Response, ASTM International."},{"key":"ref_28","first-page":"184","article-title":"Investigation of pencil lead breaks as acoustic emission sources","volume":"29","author":"Sause","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Acoust. Emiss."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"693","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2014.2352171","article-title":"Piezoelectric transducers assessed by the pencil lead break for impedance-based structural health monitoring","volume":"15","author":"Almeida","year":"2015","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9882","DOI":"10.3390\/s150509882","article-title":"Separation of radio sources and localization of partial discharges in noise environments","volume":"15","author":"Robles","year":"2015","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sikorski, W. (2012). Acoustic Emission, Intech.","DOI":"10.5772\/2070"}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/16\/8\/1266\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T19:28:07Z","timestamp":1760210887000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/16\/8\/1266"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2016,8,10]]},"references-count":31,"journal-issue":{"issue":"8","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2016,8]]}},"alternative-id":["s16081266"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s16081266","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2016,8,10]]}}}