{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,16]],"date-time":"2026-04-16T04:29:24Z","timestamp":1776313764221,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":44,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"9","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2016,8,30]],"date-time":"2016-08-30T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1472515200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>This paper presents cooperative routing scheme to improve data reliability. The proposed protocol achieves its objective, however, at the cost of surplus energy consumption. Thus sink mobility is introduced to minimize the energy consumption cost of nodes as it directly collects data from the network nodes at minimized communication distance. We also present delay and energy optimized versions of our proposed RE-AEDG to further enhance its performance. Simulation results prove the effectiveness of our proposed RE-AEDG in terms of the selected performance matrics.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s16091391","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2016,8,30]],"date-time":"2016-08-30T09:56:03Z","timestamp":1472550963000},"page":"1391","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":8,"title":["On Reliable and Efficient Data Gathering Based Routing in Underwater Wireless Sensor Networks"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"given":"Tayyaba","family":"Liaqat","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Space Technology, Islamabad 44000, Pakistan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Mariam","family":"Akbar","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"COMSATS Institute of Information Technology, Park Road, Islamabad 44000, Pakistan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3777-8249","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Nadeem","family":"Javaid","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"COMSATS Institute of Information Technology, Park Road, Islamabad 44000, Pakistan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0355-7731","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Umar","family":"Qasim","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Cameron Library, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB T6G 2J8, Canada"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7101-2979","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Zahoor","family":"Khan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Internetworking Program, FE, Dalhousie University, Halifax, NS B3J 4R2, Canada"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Qaisar","family":"Javaid","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"International Islamic University, Islamabad 44000, Pakistan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Turki","family":"Alghamdi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of CIS, Umm AlQura University, Makkah 11692, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9431-6879","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Iftikhar","family":"Niaz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"COMSATS Institute of Information Technology, Park Road, Islamabad 44000, Pakistan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2016,8,30]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1145\/1121776.1121779","article-title":"Challenges for efficient communication in underwater acoustic sensor networks","volume":"1","author":"Akyildiz","year":"2004","journal-title":"ACM Sigbed Rev."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"Shi, Z.J., and Fei, Y. (2006, January 3). Exploring architectural challenges in scalable underwater wireless sensor networks. Proceedings of the Annual Boston Area Computer Architecture Workshop (BARC), Kingston, RI, USA."},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"Da, P. (2014). Evaluation of Wi-Fi Underwater Networks in Freshwater. [Ph.D. Thesis, Universidade Do Porto]."},{"key":"ref_4","unstructured":"Tan, D.D., Le, T.T., and Kim, D.S. (2013, January 7\u201310). Distributed cooperative transmission for underwater acoustic sensor networks. Proceedings of the Wireless Communications and Networking Conference Workshops (WCNCW), Shanghai, China."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Silva, A., and Jesus, S.M. (2011, January 9\u201311). A post-detection Maximum Ratio Combiner: Experimental assessment on high diversity underwater channels. Proceedings of the 2011 7th International Workshop on Systems, Signal Processing and their Applications, Tipaza, Algeria.","DOI":"10.1109\/WOSSPA.2011.5931505"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lee, J.W., Cheon, J.Y., and Cho, H.S. (2010, January 24\u201327). A cooperative ARQ scheme in underwater acoustic sensor networks. Proceedings of the 2010 OCEANS IEEE-Sydney, Sydney, Australia.","DOI":"10.1109\/OCEANSSYD.2010.5603821"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4127","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2015.2453552","article-title":"Dynamic Node Cooperation in An Underwater Data Collection Network","volume":"16","author":"Zhang","year":"2015","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Luo, Y., Pu, L., Peng, Z., Zhou, Z., Cui, J.H., and Zhang, Z. (2013, January 14\u201316). Effective relay selection for underwater cooperative acoustic networks. Proceedings of the 2013 IEEE 10th International Conference on Mobile Ad-Hoc and Sensor Systems (MASS), Hangzhou, China.","DOI":"10.1109\/MASS.2013.36"},{"key":"ref_9","unstructured":"Gao, C., Liu, Z., Cao, B., and Mu, L. (2013, January 24\u201326). Relay selection scheme based on propagation delay for cooperative underwater acoustic network. Proceedings of the 2013 International Conference on Wireless Communications and Signal Processing (WCSP), Hangzhou, China."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14458","DOI":"10.3390\/s150614458","article-title":"DEADS: Depth and Energy Aware Dominating Set Based Algorithm for Cooperative Routing along with Sink Mobility in Underwater WSNs","volume":"15","author":"Umar","year":"2015","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1932","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2014.2306429","article-title":"A network lifetime enhancement method for sink relocation and its analysis in wireless sensor networks","volume":"14","author":"Wang","year":"2014","journal-title":"Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3516","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2014.2328613","article-title":"Routing Scheme to Maximize Lifetime and Throughput of Wireless Sensor Networks","volume":"14","author":"Ahmad","year":"2014","journal-title":"Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_13","first-page":"4891410","article-title":"Co-UWSN: Cooperative energy-efficient protocol for underwater WSNs","volume":"75","author":"Ahmed","year":"2015","journal-title":"Int. J. Distrib. Sens. Netw."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3429340","DOI":"10.1155\/2015\/429340","article-title":"Balance Transmission Mechanism in Underwater Acoustic Sensor Networks","volume":"11","author":"Cao","year":"2015","journal-title":"Int. J. Distrib. Sens. Netw."},{"key":"ref_15","first-page":"10953134","article-title":"Energy Hole Minimization with Field Division for Energy Efficient Routing in WSNs","volume":"11","author":"Latif","year":"2015","journal-title":"Int. J. Distrib. Sens. Netw."},{"key":"ref_16","first-page":"1","article-title":"Delay-sensitive routing schemes for underwater acoustic sensor networks","volume":"2015","author":"Javaid","year":"2015","journal-title":"Int. J. Distrib. Sens. Netw."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1498","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2012.2227704","article-title":"Load-balanced clustering algorithm with distributed self-organization for wireless sensor networks","volume":"13","author":"Liao","year":"2013","journal-title":"Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3944","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2014.2358567","article-title":"SEECH: Scalable energy efficient clustering hierarchy protocol in wireless sensor networks","volume":"14","author":"Tarhani","year":"2014","journal-title":"Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2658","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2014.2312549","article-title":"Cluster head election for energy and delay constraint applications of wireless sensor network","volume":"14","author":"Thakkar","year":"2014","journal-title":"Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2984","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2014.2385734","article-title":"Geographic Routing in Clustered Wireless Sensor Networks Among Obstacles","volume":"15","author":"Gupta","year":"2015","journal-title":"Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7150","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2015.2471843","article-title":"Energy Efficient Clustering Protocol for Large-Scale Sensor Networks","volume":"15","author":"Lin","year":"2015","journal-title":"Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4402","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2013.2269796","article-title":"A link-state based adaptive feedback routing for underwater acoustic sensor networks","volume":"13","author":"Zhang","year":"2013","journal-title":"Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Javaid, N., Jafri, M.R., Khan, Z.A., Qasim, U., Alghamdi, T.A., and Ali, M. (2014). Iamctd: Improved adaptive mobility of courier nodes in threshold-optimized dbr protocol for underwater wireless sensor networks. Int. J. Distrib. Sens. Netw., 2014.","DOI":"10.1155\/2014\/213012"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1827","DOI":"10.3390\/s120201827","article-title":"AURP: An AUV-aided underwater routing protocol for underwater acoustic sensor networks","volume":"12","author":"Yoon","year":"2012","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7604163","DOI":"10.1155\/2016\/7604163","article-title":"SPARCO: Stochastic Performance Analysis with Reliability and Cooperation for Underwater Wireless Sensor Networks","volume":"2016","author":"Ahmed","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Sens."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3625","DOI":"10.3390\/s150203625","article-title":"Chain-based communication in cylindrical underwater wireless sensor networks","volume":"15","author":"Javaid","year":"2015","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_27","first-page":"170138","article-title":"An Energy-Efficient Clustering Routing Algorithm Based on Geographic Position and Residual Energy for Wireless Sensor Network","volume":"2015","author":"Jorio","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Comput. Netw. Commun."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"256","DOI":"10.1016\/j.adhoc.2015.08.023","article-title":"WDFAD-DBR: Weighting depth and forwarding area division DBR routing protocol for UASNs","volume":"37","author":"Yu","year":"2016","journal-title":"Ad Hoc Netw."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"985854","DOI":"10.1155\/2014\/985854","article-title":"Boundary detection method for large-scale coverage holes in wireless sensor network based on minimum critical threshold constraint","volume":"2014","author":"Jing","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Sens."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"121","DOI":"10.1016\/j.adhoc.2014.09.016","article-title":"An adaptive routing protocol in underwater sparse acoustic sensor networks","volume":"34","author":"Yu","year":"2015","journal-title":"Ad Hoc Netw."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"715740","DOI":"10.1155\/2015\/715740","article-title":"GAECH: Genetic Algorithm Based Energy Efficient Clustering Hierarchy in Wireless Sensor Networks","volume":"2015","author":"Baranidharan","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Sens."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"29997","DOI":"10.3390\/s151229786","article-title":"Node Non-Uniform Deployment Based on Clustering Algorithm for Underwater Sensor Networks","volume":"15","author":"Jiang","year":"2015","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19331","DOI":"10.3390\/s150819331","article-title":"A Distributed Data-Gathering Protocol Using AUV in Underwater Sensor Networks","volume":"15","author":"Khan","year":"2015","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12720","DOI":"10.3390\/s150612720","article-title":"An Efficient and Reliable Geographic Routing Protocol Based on Partial Network Coding for Underwater Sensor Networks","volume":"15","author":"Hao","year":"2015","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"625274","DOI":"10.1155\/2013\/625274","article-title":"Link Expiration Time-Aware Routing Protocol for UWSNs","volume":"2013","author":"Uddin","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Sens."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1789","DOI":"10.1002\/dac.2785","article-title":"An efficient distributed routing protocol for wireless sensor networks with mobile sinks","volume":"28","author":"Shi","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. J. Commun. Syst."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"29149","DOI":"10.3390\/s151129149","article-title":"An Efficient Data-Gathering Routing Protocol for Underwater Wireless Sensor Networks","volume":"15","author":"Javaid","year":"2015","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1708","DOI":"10.1109\/JSAC.2008.081210","article-title":"Underwater acoustic networks: Channel models and network coding based lower bound to transmission power for multicast","volume":"26","author":"Lucani","year":"2008","journal-title":"IEEE J. Sel. Areas Commun."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"34","DOI":"10.1145\/1347364.1347373","article-title":"On the relationship between capacity and distance in an underwater acoustic communication channel","volume":"11","author":"Stojanovic","year":"2007","journal-title":"ACM SIGMOBILE Mob. Comput. Commun. Rev."},{"key":"ref_40","unstructured":"Brekhovskikh, L.M., and Lysanov, I.P. (2003). Fundamentals of Ocean Acoustics, Springer Science and Business Media."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"163","DOI":"10.1016\/j.phycom.2008.09.001","article-title":"Overview of channel models for underwater wireless communication networks","volume":"1","author":"Domingo","year":"2008","journal-title":"Phys. Commun."},{"key":"ref_42","unstructured":"Available online: http:\/\/www.arc.id.au\/UWAcoustics.html."},{"key":"ref_43","unstructured":"Available online: https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Relay_channel."},{"key":"ref_44","unstructured":"Available online: http:\/\/www.mathwarehouse.com\/ellipse\/equation-of-ellipse.php."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/16\/9\/1391\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T19:29:35Z","timestamp":1760210975000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/16\/9\/1391"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2016,8,30]]},"references-count":44,"journal-issue":{"issue":"9","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2016,9]]}},"alternative-id":["s16091391"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s16091391","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2016,8,30]]}}}