{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,2]],"date-time":"2026-03-02T08:45:06Z","timestamp":1772441106934,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":31,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"9","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2016,9,9]],"date-time":"2016-09-09T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1473379200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Pedestrian navigation systems (PNS) using foot-mounted MEMS inertial sensors use zero-velocity updates (ZUPTs) to reduce drift in navigation solutions and estimate inertial sensor errors. However, it is well known that ZUPTs cannot reduce all errors, especially as heading error is not observable. Hence, the position estimates tend to drift and even cyclic ZUPTs are applied in updated steps of the Extended Kalman Filter (EKF). This urges the use of other motion constraints for pedestrian gait and any other valuable heading reduction information that is available. In this paper, we exploit two more motion constraints scenarios of pedestrian gait: (1) walking along straight paths; (2) standing still for a long time. It is observed that these motion constraints (called \u201cvirtual sensor\u201d), though considerably reducing drift in PNS, still need an absolute heading reference. One common absolute heading estimation sensor is the magnetometer, which senses the Earth\u2019s magnetic field and, hence, the true heading angle can be calculated. However, magnetometers are susceptible to magnetic distortions, especially in indoor environments. In this work, an algorithm, called magnetic anomaly detection (MAD) and compensation is designed by incorporating only healthy magnetometer data in the EKF updating step, to reduce drift in zero-velocity updated INS. Experiments are conducted in GPS-denied and magnetically distorted environments to validate the proposed algorithms.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s16091455","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2016,9,9]],"date-time":"2016-09-09T10:36:06Z","timestamp":1473417366000},"page":"1455","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":40,"title":["Drift Reduction in Pedestrian Navigation System by Exploiting Motion Constraints and Magnetic Field"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"given":"Muhammad","family":"Ilyas","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Robotics and Virtual Engineering, University of Science and Technology (UST), Daejon 305-333, Korea"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Kuk","family":"Cho","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Robotics R & BD Group, Korea Institute of Industrial Technology (KITECH), Ansan 426-791, Korea"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Seung-Ho","family":"Baeg","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Robotics R & BD Group, Korea Institute of Industrial Technology (KITECH), Ansan 426-791, Korea"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Sangdeok","family":"Park","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Robotics R & BD Group, Korea Institute of Industrial Technology (KITECH), Ansan 426-791, Korea"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2016,9,9]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","first-page":"35","article-title":"Pedestrian tracking using inertial sensors","volume":"3","author":"Feliz","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Phys. Agents"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1281","DOI":"10.1109\/SURV.2012.121912.00075","article-title":"A Survey of Indoor Inertial Positioning Systems for Pedestrians","volume":"15","author":"Harle","year":"2013","journal-title":"IEEE Commun. Surv. Tutor."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jimenez, A.R., Seco, F., Prieto, J.C., and Guevar, J. (2010, January 11\u201312). Indoor pedestrian naigation using an INS\/EKF framework for yaw drift reduction and a foot-mounted IMU. Proceedings of the 7th Workshop on Positioning, Navigation and Communication (WPNC), Dresden, Germany.","DOI":"10.1109\/WPNC.2010.5649300"},{"key":"ref_4","unstructured":"ENSCO. Available online: http:\/\/www.ensco.com\/products-services\/security\/gps-denied-geolocation-navigation\/personnel-navigation.htm."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"38","DOI":"10.1109\/MCG.2005.140","article-title":"Pedestrian Tracking with Shoe-Mounted Inertial Sensors","volume":"25","author":"Foxlin","year":"2005","journal-title":"IEEE Comput. Graph. Appl."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.1109\/MPRV.2012.16","article-title":"Tutorial: Implementation of a pedestrian tracker using foot-mounted inertial sensors","volume":"12","author":"Fischer","year":"2013","journal-title":"IEEE Pervasive Comput."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Godha, S., and Lachapelle, G. (2008). Foot mounted inertial system for pedestrian navigation. Meas. Sci. Technol., 19.","DOI":"10.1088\/0957-0233\/19\/7\/075202"},{"key":"ref_8","unstructured":"John-Olof, N., Issac, S., and Peter, H. OpenShoe: Foot-Mounted INS for Every Foot. Available online: http:\/\/www.openshoe.org."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4781","DOI":"10.3390\/s130404781","article-title":"On calibrating the sensor errors of a PDR-Based indoor localization system","volume":"13","year":"2013","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_10","unstructured":"Groves, P.D. (2008). Principles of GNSS, Inertial, and Multisensor Integrated Navigation Sysems, Artech House."},{"key":"ref_11","unstructured":"Kim, J. (2004). Autonomous Navigation for Airborne Application. [Ph.D. Thesis, University of Sydney]."},{"key":"ref_12","unstructured":"Ilyas, M., Kuk, C., Seung-Ho, B., and Sangdeok, P. (June, January 31). Drift reduction in IMU-only pedestrian navigation system in unstructured environment. Proceedings of the 10th Asian Control Conference (ASCC), Kota Kinabalu, Malyasia."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3296","DOI":"10.1109\/TIM.2010.2047157","article-title":"Orientation estimation using a quaternion-based indirect Kalman filter with adaptive estimation of external acceleration","volume":"59","author":"Young","year":"2010","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Instrum. Meas."},{"key":"ref_14","unstructured":"Matthew, W. (2013). The Design and Implementation of a Robust AHRS for Integration into a Quadrotor Platform, The University of Sheffield."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Titterton, D., and Weston, J. (2004). Strapdown Inertial Navigation Technolog, The American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics.","DOI":"10.1049\/PBRA017E"},{"key":"ref_16","unstructured":"Nilsson, J.-O., Skog, I., and Handel, P. (2012, January 13\u201315). A note on the limitations of ZUPTs and the implications on sensor error modeling. Proceedings of the 2012 International Conference on Indoor Positioning and Indoor Navigation (IPIN), Sydney, Australia."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3018","DOI":"10.1109\/TIM.2010.2046595","article-title":"Personal navigation via high-resolution gait-corrected inertial measurement units","volume":"59","author":"Bebek","year":"2010","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Instrum. Meas."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Guo, Q., Bebek, O., Cavusoglu, M.C., Mastrangelo, C.H., and Young, D.J. (2015, January 21\u201325). A personal navigation system using MEMS-based high-density ground reaction sensor array and inertial measurement unit. Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Solid-State Sensors, Actuators and Microsystems (TRANSDUCERS), Anchorage, AK, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/TRANSDUCERS.2015.7181113"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2657","DOI":"10.1109\/TBME.2010.2060723","article-title":"Zero-Velocity Detection\u2014An Algorithm Evaluation","volume":"57","author":"Skog","year":"2010","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Skog, I., Nilsson, J.-O., and Handel, P. (2010, January 15\u201317). Evaluation of zero-velocity detector for foot-mounted inertial navigation systems. Proceedings of the 2010 International Conference on Indoor Positioning and Indoor Navigation (IPIN), Zurich, Switzerland.","DOI":"10.1109\/IPIN.2010.5646936"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ramanandan, A., Chen, A., and Farrel, J.A. (July, January 29). Obserbability analysis of an inertial navigation system with stationary updates. Proceedings of the 2011 American Control Conference, San Francisco, CA, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/ACC.2011.5991282"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9163","DOI":"10.3390\/s101009163","article-title":"A zero velocity detection algorithm using inertial sensors for pedestrian navigation systems","volume":"10","author":"Sang","year":"2010","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15","DOI":"10.1017\/S0373463311000518","article-title":"Using constraints for shoe mounted indoor pedestrian navigation","volume":"15","author":"Abdulrahim","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Navig."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"219","DOI":"10.1017\/S0373463310000573","article-title":"Aiding low cost inertial navigation with building heading for Pedestrian navigation","volume":"64","author":"Abdulrahim","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Navig."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"41","DOI":"10.1017\/S0373463308005043","article-title":"Heuristic reduction of gyro drift for personnel tracking systems","volume":"62","author":"Borenstein","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Navig."},{"key":"ref_26","unstructured":"Nilsson, J.-O., and Handel, P. (2013, January 28\u201331). Standing still with inertial navigation. Proceedings of the 2013 International Conference on Indoor Positioning and Indoor Navigation (IPIN), Montb\u00e9liard-Belfort, France."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Renaudin, V., Haris Afzal, M., and Lachapelle, G. (2010). Complete Triaxis Magnetometer Calibration in the Magnetic Domain. J. Sens.","DOI":"10.1155\/2010\/967245"},{"key":"ref_28","unstructured":"Caruso, M., and Withanawasam, L. Vehicle Detection and Compass Applications Using AMR Magnetic Sensors. Available online: https:\/\/aerospace.honeywell.com\/en\/~\/media\/aerospace\/files\/technical-articles\/vehicledetectionandcompassapplicationsusingamrmagneticsensors_ta.pdf."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20008","DOI":"10.3390\/s141120008","article-title":"Accurate orientation estimation using AHRS under conditions of magnetic distortion","volume":"14","author":"Yadav","year":"2014","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Prieto, J., Mazuelas, S., Bahillo, A., Fernand, P., Lorenzo, R.M., and Abril, E.J. (2013, January 20\u201321). Pedestrian navigation in harsh environments using wireless and inertial measurements. Proceedings of the 10th Workshop on Positioning, Navigation and Comunication (WPNC), Dresden, Germany.","DOI":"10.1109\/WPNC.2013.6533280"},{"key":"ref_31","unstructured":"LORD MicroStrain. Available online: http:\/\/www.microstrain.com\/inertial\/3dm-gx3-45."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/16\/9\/1455\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T19:30:30Z","timestamp":1760211030000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/16\/9\/1455"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2016,9,9]]},"references-count":31,"journal-issue":{"issue":"9","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2016,9]]}},"alternative-id":["s16091455"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s16091455","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2016,9,9]]}}}