{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,23]],"date-time":"2026-03-23T11:16:13Z","timestamp":1774264573351,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":29,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"9","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2016,9,18]],"date-time":"2016-09-18T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1474156800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Sensors are essential to the fulfillment of every condition of haptic technology, and they need simultaneously to sense shear stress as well as normal force, and temperature. They also must have a strong and simple structure, softness, and large extension. To achieve these conditions simultaneously, we enhanced the sensitivity of sensors utilizing natural rubber (NR)-latex through the application of electrolytic polymerization focused on the isoprene C=C bonds in natural rubbers such as NR-latex, and then applied a magnetic field and magnetic compound fluid (MCF) as magnetically responsive fluid. When an electric field alone was used in the rubber, the effect of electrolytic polymerization was very small compared to the effect in well-known conductive polymer solution such as plastic. The MCF developed by Shimada in 2001 involved magnetite and metal particles, and acts as a filler in NR-latex. By utilizing the magnetic, electric fields and the MCF, we aligned the electrolytically polymerized C=C along the magnetic field line with the magnetic clusters formed by the aggregation of magnetite and metal particles so as to enhance the effect of electrolytic polymerization. We then demonstrated the effectiveness of the new method of rubber vulcanization on the sensitivity of the rubber by experimentally investigating its electric and dynamic characteristics.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s16091521","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2016,9,19]],"date-time":"2016-09-19T10:07:43Z","timestamp":1474279663000},"page":"1521","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":26,"title":["Mechanical Enhancement of Sensitivity in Natural Rubber Using Electrolytic Polymerization Aided by a Magnetic Field and MCF for Application in Haptic Sensors"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9174-503X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Kunio","family":"Shimada","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Symbiotic Systems Sciences, Fukushima University, 1 Kanayagawa, Fukushima 960-1296, Japan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2415-7240","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Norihiko","family":"Saga","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Human System Interaction, Kansai Gakuin University, 2-1 Gakuen, Sanda, Hyogo 669-1337, Japan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2016,9,18]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"296","DOI":"10.1109\/TMECH.2002.802720","article-title":"Dexterous anthropomorphic robot hand with distributed tactile sensors: Gifu hand II","volume":"7","author":"Kawasaki","year":"2002","journal-title":"IEEE\/ASME Trans. Mechatron."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1748","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2009.2030660","article-title":"Dual-mode capacitive proximity sensor for robot application: Implementation of tactile and proximity sensing capability on a single polymer platform using shared electrodes","volume":"9","author":"Lee","year":"2009","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1508","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2010.2044407","article-title":"A multifunctional tactile sensor based on PVD films for identification of materials","volume":"10","author":"Kimoto","year":"2010","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_4","first-page":"86","article-title":"Experimental investigation on technique to read convex shape by MCF rubber sensor utilizing robot action","volume":"14","author":"Shimada","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Jpn. Soc. Exp. Mech."},{"key":"ref_5","first-page":"330","article-title":"Quantification of a constant stimulus applied to infants by diapers\u2013relationship between walking motion and constant stimuli","volume":"19","author":"Nomata","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Soc. Appl. Electromagn. Mech."},{"key":"ref_6","unstructured":"Yoshida, T. (2005). The Leading Edge of Development of Super Five Senses Sensor, NTS Press. [1st ed.]."},{"key":"ref_7","unstructured":"Weijie, S. (2014). A Novel Paradigm of Sensing: Multi-Signals Acquisition with One Sensor. [Master\u2019s Thesis, University of Saskatchewan]."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"576","DOI":"10.1115\/1.1471531","article-title":"An endoscopic and robotic tooth-like compliance and roughness tactile sensor","volume":"8124","author":"Dargahi","year":"2002","journal-title":"Trans. ASME J. Mech. Des."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"35","DOI":"10.1177\/1045389X06072802","article-title":"Measurement and evaluation of tactile sensations using a PVDF sensor","volume":"19","author":"Tanaka","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Intell. Mater. Syst. Struct."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"23","DOI":"10.1016\/0928-4931(93)90006-O","article-title":"Skin-like tactile sensor arrays for contact stress field extraction","volume":"1","author":"Canepa","year":"1993","journal-title":"Mater. Sci. Eng. C"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"37","DOI":"10.1109\/TOH.2009.47","article-title":"Finger-shaped gelforce: Sensor for measuring surface traction fields for robotic hand","volume":"3","author":"Sato","year":"2010","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Haptics"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"522","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2010.2041773","article-title":"A natural contact sensor paradigm for nonintrusive and real-time sensing of bio-signals in human-machine interactions","volume":"11","author":"Lin","year":"2011","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2155","DOI":"10.1177\/1045389X11426179","article-title":"On finding of high piezo-resistive response of CNT films without surfactants for in-plane strain detection","volume":"22","author":"Miao","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Intell. Mater. Syst. Struct."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5997","DOI":"10.1002\/adma.201302240","article-title":"25th anniversary article: The evolution of electronic skin (e-skin): A brief history, design considerations, and recent progress","volume":"25","author":"Mallory","year":"2013","journal-title":"Adv. Mater."},{"key":"ref_15","first-page":"288","article-title":"Principle and characteristics of high sensitive haptic MCF rubber perceptible to shear force as well as normal force utilizing intelligent fluid","volume":"12","author":"Shimada","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Jpn. Soc. Exp. Mech."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3034","DOI":"10.1299\/kikaib.67.3034","article-title":"Hydrodynamic and magnetized characteristics of MCF (magnetic compound fluid)","volume":"664","author":"Shimada","year":"2001","journal-title":"Trans. Jpn. Soc. Mech. Eng."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"297","DOI":"10.1088\/0964-1726\/12\/2\/318","article-title":"Extraction of magnetic clusters self-assembled by a magnetic field","volume":"12","author":"Shimada","year":"2003","journal-title":"Smart Mater. Struct."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"242","DOI":"10.1016\/S0304-8853(02)01497-X","article-title":"Effect of magnetic cluster and magnetic field on polishing using magnetic compound fluid (MCF)","volume":"262","author":"Shimada","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Magn. Magn. Mater."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"119","DOI":"10.3233\/JAE-2007-847","article-title":"Possibility of utilizing MCF in viscous damper of passive type","volume":"25","author":"Shimada","year":"2007","journal-title":"Int. J. Appl. Electromagn. Mech."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15","DOI":"10.1177\/1045389X05046687","article-title":"Magnetic rubber having magnetic clusters composed of metal particles","volume":"16","author":"Shimada","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Intell. Mater. Syst. Struct."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"690","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jmatprotec.2005.02.151","article-title":"Float polishing technique using new tool consisting of micro magnetic clusters","volume":"162\u2013163","author":"Shimada","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Mater. Process. Technol."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jmmm.2004.11.004","article-title":"Magnetic cluster and its applications","volume":"289","author":"Shimada","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Magn. Magn. Mater."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"204148","DOI":"10.1088\/0953-8984\/20\/20\/204148","article-title":"Research on a haptic sensor made using MCF conductive rubber","volume":"20","author":"Zheng","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Phys. Condens. Matter."},{"key":"ref_24","unstructured":"Shimada, K. (2014, January 28\u201330). Study on deterioration characteristics of MCF rubber. Proceedings of the JSEM, 2014 Annual Conference on Experimental Mechanics, Himeji, Japan."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"578","DOI":"10.1039\/c39770000578","article-title":"Synthesis of electrically conducting organic polymers: Halogen derivatives of Polyacetylene, (CH)x","volume":"1977","author":"Shirakawa","year":"1977","journal-title":"J. Chem. Soc. Chem. Commun."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1552","DOI":"10.1002\/app.29312","article-title":"Electrolytic admicellar polymerization of pyrrole on natural rubber\/clay nanocomposites","volume":"112","author":"Pojanavaraphan","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Appl. Polym. Sci."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109","DOI":"10.1016\/j.solmat.2011.07.004","article-title":"Electropolymerization of 3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene within an insulating nitrile butadiene rubber network: Application to electroreflective surfaces and devices","volume":"99","author":"Fabre","year":"2012","journal-title":"Sol. Energy Mater. Sol. Cells"},{"key":"ref_28","first-page":"120","article-title":"Evaluation of a pseudo-elastic model for the Mullins effect","volume":"1","author":"Mars","year":"1973","journal-title":"Tire Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"315","DOI":"10.1002\/app.1966.070100212","article-title":"Stress softening in natural rubber vulcanization. Part III. Carbon black-filled vulcanization","volume":"10","author":"Harwood","year":"1966","journal-title":"J. Appl. Polym. Sci."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/16\/9\/1521\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T19:31:07Z","timestamp":1760211067000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/16\/9\/1521"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2016,9,18]]},"references-count":29,"journal-issue":{"issue":"9","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2016,9]]}},"alternative-id":["s16091521"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s16091521","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2016,9,18]]}}}