{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,15]],"date-time":"2026-01-15T08:27:10Z","timestamp":1768465630318,"version":"3.49.0"},"reference-count":81,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"10","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2016,10,14]],"date-time":"2016-10-14T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1476403200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The electronic nose is able to provide useful information through the analysis of the volatile organic compounds in body fluids, such as exhaled breath, urine and blood. This paper focuses on the review of electronic nose studies and applications in the specific field of medical diagnostics based on the analysis of the gaseous headspace of human urine, in order to provide a broad overview of the state of the art and thus enhance future developments in this field. The research in this field is rather recent and still in progress, and there are several aspects that need to be investigated more into depth, not only to develop and improve specific electronic noses for different diseases, but also with the aim to discover and analyse the connections between specific diseases and the body fluids odour. Further research is needed to improve the results obtained up to now; the development of new sensors and data processing methods should lead to greater diagnostic accuracy thus making the electronic nose an effective tool for early detection of different kinds of diseases, ranging from infections to tumours or exposure to toxic agents.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s16101708","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2016,10,14]],"date-time":"2016-10-14T09:40:29Z","timestamp":1476438029000},"page":"1708","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":70,"title":["Application and Uses of Electronic Noses for Clinical Diagnosis on Urine Samples: A Review"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0002-3619","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Laura","family":"Capelli","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Politecnico di Milano, Dipartimento di Chimica, Materiali e Ingegneria Chimica \u201cGiulio Natta\u201d, piazza Leonardo da Vinci 32, Milan 20133, Italy"}]},{"given":"Gianluigi","family":"Taverna","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Urology, Humanitas Clinical and Research Center, Via Manzoni 56, Rozzano, Milan 20089, Italy"},{"name":"Ospedale Humanitas Mater Domini, Via Gerenzano 2, Castellanza, Varese 21053, Italy"}]},{"given":"Alessia","family":"Bellini","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Politecnico di Milano, Dipartimento di Chimica, Materiali e Ingegneria Chimica \u201cGiulio Natta\u201d, piazza Leonardo da Vinci 32, Milan 20133, Italy"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2319-2792","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Lidia","family":"Eusebio","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Politecnico di Milano, Dipartimento di Chimica, Materiali e Ingegneria Chimica \u201cGiulio Natta\u201d, piazza Leonardo da Vinci 32, Milan 20133, Italy"}]},{"given":"Niccol\u00f2","family":"Buffi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Urology, Humanitas Clinical and Research Center, Via Manzoni 56, Rozzano, Milan 20089, Italy"}]},{"given":"Massimo","family":"Lazzeri","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Urology, Humanitas Clinical and Research Center, Via Manzoni 56, Rozzano, Milan 20089, Italy"}]},{"given":"Giorgio","family":"Guazzoni","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Urology, Humanitas Clinical and Research Center, Via Manzoni 56, Rozzano, Milan 20089, Italy"}]},{"given":"Giorgio","family":"Bozzini","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Ospedale Humanitas Mater Domini, Via Gerenzano 2, Castellanza, Varese 21053, Italy"}]},{"given":"Mauro","family":"Seveso","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Ospedale Humanitas Mater Domini, Via Gerenzano 2, Castellanza, Varese 21053, Italy"}]},{"given":"Alberto","family":"Mandressi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Ospedale Humanitas Mater Domini, Via Gerenzano 2, Castellanza, Varese 21053, Italy"}]},{"given":"Lorenzo","family":"Tidu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Italian Ministry of Defense\u2019s, Military Veterinary Center, CEMIVET, Via Provinciale Castiglionese, 201, Grosseto 58100, Italy"}]},{"given":"Fabio","family":"Grizzi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Immunology and Inflammation, Humanitas Clinical and Research Center, Via Manzoni 56, Rozzano, Milan 20089, Italy"}]},{"given":"Paolo","family":"Sardella","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Italian Ministry of Defense\u2019s, Military Veterinary Center, CEMIVET, Via Provinciale Castiglionese, 201, Grosseto 58100, Italy"}]},{"given":"Giuseppe","family":"Latorre","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Italian Ministry of Defense\u2019s, Military Veterinary Center, CEMIVET, Via Provinciale Castiglionese, 201, Grosseto 58100, Italy"}]},{"given":"Rodolfo","family":"Hurle","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Urology, Humanitas Clinical and Research Center, Via Manzoni 56, Rozzano, Milan 20089, Italy"}]},{"given":"Giovanni","family":"Lughezzani","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Urology, Humanitas Clinical and Research Center, Via Manzoni 56, Rozzano, Milan 20089, Italy"}]},{"given":"Paolo","family":"Casale","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Urology, Humanitas Clinical and Research Center, Via Manzoni 56, Rozzano, Milan 20089, Italy"}]},{"given":"Sara","family":"Meregali","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Ospedale Humanitas Mater Domini, Via Gerenzano 2, Castellanza, Varese 21053, Italy"}]},{"given":"Selena","family":"Sironi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Politecnico di Milano, Dipartimento di Chimica, Materiali e Ingegneria Chimica \u201cGiulio Natta\u201d, piazza Leonardo da Vinci 32, Milan 20133, Italy"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2016,10,14]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"257","DOI":"10.1093\/jb\/mvr090","article-title":"The scent of disease: Volatile organic compounds of the human body related to disease and disorder","volume":"150","author":"Shirasu","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Biochem."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"Adams, F. (1994). Hippocratic Writings: Aphorism, Web Atomics. [5th ed.]."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"259","DOI":"10.1016\/S0378-4347(00)00554-5","article-title":"Headspace solid-phase micorextraction profiling of volatile compounds in urine: Application to metabolic investigations","volume":"753","author":"Mills","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Chromatogr. B Biomed. Sci. Appl."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Smith, S., Burden, H., Persad, R., Whittington, K., de Lacy Costello, B., Ratcliffe, N.M., and Probert, C.S. (2008). A comparative study of the analysis of human urine headspace using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. J. Breath Res., 2.","DOI":"10.1088\/1752-7155\/2\/3\/037022"},{"key":"ref_5","unstructured":"Amann, A., and Smith, D. (2013). Volatile Biomarkers, Non-Invasive Diagnosis in Physiology and Medicine, Elsevier B.V."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"763","DOI":"10.1021\/ac60326a036","article-title":"Profile of volatile metabolites in urine by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry","volume":"45","author":"Zlatkis","year":"1973","journal-title":"Anal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"551","DOI":"10.1016\/S0021-9673(00)99984-9","article-title":"Specific detection of volatile metabolites in urines of normal subjects and patients with diabetes mellitus using computerized mass fragmentography","volume":"112","author":"Liebich","year":"1975","journal-title":"J. Chromatogr."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"50","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jchromb.2013.09.040","article-title":"Changes in volatile compounds of human urine as it ages: Their interaction with water","volume":"941","author":"Kwak","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Chromatogr. B Analyt. Technol. Biomed. Life Sci."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1656","DOI":"10.1007\/s11306-015-0813-8","article-title":"Changes in urine headspace composition as an effect of strenuous walking","volume":"11","author":"Samudrala","year":"2015","journal-title":"Metabolomics"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"541","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-2164-9-541","article-title":"A new strategy for faster urinary biomarkers identification by Nano-LC-MALDI-TOF\/TOF mass spectrometry","volume":"9","author":"Benkali","year":"2008","journal-title":"BMC Genom."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"37","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jchromb.2012.12.005","article-title":"Ultra high performance liquid chromatography as a tool for the discovery and the analysis of biomarkers of diseases: A review","volume":"927","author":"Denoroy","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Chromatogr. B Analyt. Technol. Biomed. Life Sci."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2374","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.68.10.2374","article-title":"Quantitative analysis of urine vapor and breath by gas-liquid partition chromatography","volume":"68","author":"Pauling","year":"1971","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"789","DOI":"10.1093\/clinchem\/27.6.789","article-title":"The role of organic volatile profiles in clinical diagnosis","volume":"27","author":"Zlatkis","year":"1981","journal-title":"Clin. Chem."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"130","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chroma.2007.01.012","article-title":"Sample preparation for the analysis of volatile organic compounds in air and water matrices","volume":"1153","author":"Demeestere","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Chromatogr. A"},{"key":"ref_15","first-page":"558","article-title":"Urine Metabolomics Analysis for Kidney Cancer Detection and Biomarker Discovery","volume":"5","author":"Kim","year":"2009","journal-title":"Mol. Cell. Biochem."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1894","DOI":"10.1038\/bjc.2011.437","article-title":"Investigation of urinary volatile organic metabolites as potential cancer biomarkers by solid-phase microextraction in combination with gas chromatography-mass spectrometry","volume":"105","author":"Silva","year":"2011","journal-title":"Br. J. Cancer"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"679","DOI":"10.1271\/bbb.110760","article-title":"Urinary Volatile Compounds as Biomarkers for Lung Cancer","volume":"76","author":"Hanai","year":"2012","journal-title":"Biosci. Biotechnol. Biochem."},{"key":"ref_18","unstructured":"Reedijk, J. (2014). Reference Module in Chemistry, Molecular Sciences and Chemical Engineering, Elsevier."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2007.12.005","article-title":"Complementary approaches to measure environmental odours emitted by landfill areas","volume":"131","author":"Romain","year":"2008","journal-title":"Sens. Actuator B Chem."},{"key":"ref_20","unstructured":"CEN (2003). Air Quality\u2014Determination of Odor Concentration by Dynamic Olfactometry, CEN."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5129","DOI":"10.1016\/j.watres.2010.06.013","article-title":"Monitoring techniques for odour abatement assessment","volume":"44","author":"Sivret","year":"2010","journal-title":"Water Res."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"595","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2010.10.054","article-title":"Olfactometric approach for the evaluation of citizens\u2019 exposure to industrial emissions in the city of Terni, Italy","volume":"409","author":"Capelli","year":"2011","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_23","first-page":"175","article-title":"A logarithmic scale with db units to present odor levels and their differences","volume":"50","year":"1990","journal-title":"Staub. Reinhaltung Der Luft"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5061","DOI":"10.1016\/j.atmosenv.2008.02.017","article-title":"A comparative analysis of malodor samples between direct (olfactometry) and indirect (instrumental) methods","volume":"42","author":"Kim","year":"2008","journal-title":"Atmos. Environ."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7287","DOI":"10.3390\/s100807287","article-title":"Experimental demonstration of masking phenomenon between competing odorants via an air dilution sensory test","volume":"10","author":"Kim","year":"2010","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_26","unstructured":"VDI (1994). Vdi 3882 Sheet 2: Olfactometry; Determination of Hedonic Odour Tone, Beuth Verlag GmbH."},{"key":"ref_27","unstructured":"VDI (1992). Vdi 3882 Sheet 1: Olfactometry; Determination of Odour Intensity, Beuth Verlag GmbH."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"345","DOI":"10.2166\/wst.2007.197","article-title":"The use of an odour wheel classification for the evaluation of human health risk criteria for compost facilities","volume":"55","author":"Rosenfeld","year":"2007","journal-title":"Water Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_29","first-page":"301","article-title":"Evaluation of olfactory properties of gas odorants","volume":"36","author":"Capelli","year":"2014","journal-title":"Chem. Eng. Trans."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"321","DOI":"10.1111\/ics.12028","article-title":"Methodology for assessing the performance of urine absorbing aids in controlling malodour release","volume":"35","author":"Sironi","year":"2013","journal-title":"Int. J. Cosmet. Sci."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"712","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.329.7468.712","article-title":"Olfactory detection of human bladder cancer by dogs: Proof of principle study","volume":"329","author":"Willis","year":"2004","journal-title":"Brit. Med. J."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"197","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eururo.2010.10.006","article-title":"Olfactory detection of prostate cancer by dogs sniffing urine: A step forward in early diagnosis","volume":"59","author":"Cornu","year":"2011","journal-title":"Eur. Urol."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"814","DOI":"10.1136\/gut.2010.218305","article-title":"Colorectal cancer screening with odour material by canine scent detection","volume":"60","author":"Sonoda","year":"2011","journal-title":"Gut"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1382","DOI":"10.1016\/j.juro.2014.09.099","article-title":"Olfactory System of Highly Trained Dogs Detects Prostate Cancer in Urine Samples","volume":"193","author":"Taverna","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Urol."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"67","DOI":"10.1515\/cclm-2015-0717","article-title":"Highly-trained dogs\u2019 olfactory system for detecting biochemical recurrence following radical prostatectomy","volume":"54","author":"Taverna","year":"2016","journal-title":"Clin. Chem. Lab. Med."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"69","DOI":"10.1016\/S0303-2647(96)01660-7","article-title":"Computational parallels between the biological olfactory pathway and its analogue \u201cThe Electronic Nose\u201d: Part II. Sensor-based machine olfaction","volume":"41","author":"Pearce","year":"1997","journal-title":"Biosystems"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2012.03.029","article-title":"Biology and applications of olfactory sensing system: A review","volume":"171\u2013172","author":"Sankaran","year":"2012","journal-title":"Sens. Actuator B Chem."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"352","DOI":"10.1038\/299352a0","article-title":"Analysis of discrimination mechanisms in the mammalian olfactory system using a model nose","volume":"299","author":"Persaud","year":"1982","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/S0925-4005(03)00321-6","article-title":"The electronic nose applied to dairy products: A review","volume":"94","author":"Ampuero","year":"2003","journal-title":"Sens. Actuator B Chem."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aca.2009.02.009","article-title":"A 21st century technique for food control: Electronic noses","volume":"638","author":"Peris","year":"2009","journal-title":"Anal. Chim. Acta"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19979","DOI":"10.3390\/s141119979","article-title":"Electronic Noses for Environmental Monitoring Applications","volume":"14","author":"Capelli","year":"2014","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2014.07.087","article-title":"On \u2018Electronic Nose\u2019 methodology","volume":"204","author":"Boeker","year":"2014","journal-title":"Sens. Actuator B Chem."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"427","DOI":"10.1016\/j.enzmictec.2011.04.003","article-title":"Recent advances in electronic and bioelectronics noses and their biomedical applications","volume":"48","author":"Oh","year":"2011","journal-title":"Enzyme Microb. Technol."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1105","DOI":"10.3390\/s110101105","article-title":"Advances in Electronic-Nose Technologies Developed for Biomedical Applications","volume":"11","author":"Wilson","year":"2011","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pearce, T.C., Schiffman, S.S., Nagle, H.T., and Gardner, J.W. (2003). Handbook of Machine Olfaction: Electronic Nose Technology, Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co.","DOI":"10.1002\/3527601597"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"705","DOI":"10.1021\/cr068121q","article-title":"Electronic Nose: Current Status and Future Trends","volume":"108","author":"Barsan","year":"2008","journal-title":"Chem. Rev."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"211","DOI":"10.1016\/0925-4005(94)87085-3","article-title":"A brief-history of electronic noses","volume":"18","author":"Gardner","year":"1994","journal-title":"Sens. Actuator B Chem."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"183","DOI":"10.1007\/s00604-006-0623-9","article-title":"Data analysis for electronic nose systems","volume":"156","author":"Scott","year":"2007","journal-title":"Microchim. Acta"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"366","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1472-765X.2002.01197.x","article-title":"Recognition of anaerobic bacterial isolates in vitro using electronic nose technology","volume":"35","author":"Pavlou","year":"2002","journal-title":"Lett. Appl. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"775","DOI":"10.1007\/s10096-009-0700-1","article-title":"Device-independent, real-time identification of bacterial pathogens with a metal oxide-based olfactory sensor","volume":"28","author":"Bruins","year":"2009","journal-title":"Eur. J. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"259","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cmpb.2005.04.003","article-title":"Data reduction in headspace analysis of blood and urine samples for robust bacterial identification","volume":"79","author":"Yates","year":"2005","journal-title":"Comput. Methods Programs Biomed."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2590","DOI":"10.1128\/JCM.39.7.2590-2593.2001","article-title":"Diagnosis of Bacteriuria by detection of volatile organic compounds in urine using an automated headspace analyzer with multiple conducting polymer sensors","volume":"39","author":"Aathithan","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Clin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"893","DOI":"10.1016\/S0956-5663(02)00078-7","article-title":"Use of an electronic nose system for diagnoses of urinary tract infections","volume":"17","author":"Pavlou","year":"2002","journal-title":"Biosens. Bioelectron."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"707","DOI":"10.1109\/TITB.2008.917928","article-title":"Artificial odor discrimination system using electronic nose and neural networks for the identification of urinary tract infections","volume":"12","author":"Kodogiannis","year":"2008","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Inf. Technol. Biomed."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Roine, A., Saviauk, T., Kumpulainen, P., Karjalainen, M., Tuokko, A., Aittoniemi, J., Vuento, R., Lekkala, J., Lehtim\u04d3ki, T., and Tammela, T.L. (2014). Rapid and accurate detection of urinary pathogens by mobile IMS-based electronic nose: A proof-of-principle study. PLoS ONE, 9.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0114279"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"363","DOI":"10.1142\/S0129065705000347","article-title":"The use of a gas sensor arrays to diagnose urinary tract infections","volume":"15","author":"Kodogiannis","year":"2005","journal-title":"Int. J. Neural Syst."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sabeel, T.M.A., Che Harun, F.K., Eluwa, S.E., and Sabeel, S.M.A. (2013, January 26\u201328). Detection of volatile organic compounds in urine using an electronic nose instrument. Proceedings of the 2013 International Conference on Computing Electrical and Electronics Engineering (ICCEEE), Khartoum, Sudan.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICCEEE.2013.6633956"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"116","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2005.12.062","article-title":"Monitoring urinary tract infections and bacterial vaginosis","volume":"116","author":"Persaud","year":"2005","journal-title":"Sens. Actuator B Chem."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2007.12.030","article-title":"A preliminary study on the possibility to diagnose urinary tract cancers by an electronic nose","volume":"131","author":"Bernabei","year":"2007","journal-title":"Sens. Actuator B Chem."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"359","DOI":"10.1039\/C0AN00382D","article-title":"Evaluation of a gas sensor array and pattern recognition for the identification of bladder cancer from urine headspace","volume":"136","author":"Weber","year":"2011","journal-title":"Analyst"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"560","DOI":"10.1016\/j.juro.2015.02.1652","article-title":"An electronic nose system detects bladder cancer in urine specimen: First results of a pilot study","volume":"193","author":"Horstmann","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Urol."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1113","DOI":"10.1016\/j.proeng.2012.09.346","article-title":"A novel approach for prostate cancer diagnosis using a gas sensor array","volume":"47","author":"Santonico","year":"2012","journal-title":"Procedia Eng."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"320","DOI":"10.1016\/j.proeng.2014.11.672","article-title":"Chemical sensors for prostate cancerdetection oriented to non-invasive approach","volume":"87","author":"Santonico","year":"2014","journal-title":"Procedia Eng."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"206","DOI":"10.1038\/pcan.2014.11","article-title":"Prostate cancer diagnosis through electronic nose in the urine headspace setting: A pilot study","volume":"17","author":"Asimakopoulos","year":"2014","journal-title":"Prostate Cancer Prost. Dis."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"230","DOI":"10.1016\/j.juro.2014.01.113","article-title":"Detection of prostate cancer by an electronic nose: A proof of principle study","volume":"192","author":"Roine","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Urol."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"733","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bios.2014.10.044","article-title":"Development and application of a new electronic nose instrument for the detection of colorectal cancer","volume":"67","author":"Westenbrink","year":"2014","journal-title":"Biosens. Bioelectron."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Siyang, S., Kerdeharoen, T., and Wongchoosuk, C. (2012, January 5\u20137). Diabetes diagnosis by direct measurement from urine odor using electronic nose. Proceedings of the 2012 5th Biomedical Engineering International Conference, Ubon Ratchathani, Thailand.","DOI":"10.1109\/BMEiCon.2012.6465441"},{"key":"ref_68","first-page":"1031","article-title":"A novel method for diabetes diagnosis based on electronic nose","volume":"12","author":"Wang","year":"1997","journal-title":"Biosens. Bioelectron."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"377","DOI":"10.1088\/0967-3334\/20\/4\/305","article-title":"Electronic nose analysis of urine samples containing blood","volume":"20","author":"Mantini","year":"1999","journal-title":"Physiol. Meas."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"333","DOI":"10.3109\/03091902.2012.690015","article-title":"Evaluation of gut bacterial populations using an electronic e-nose and field asymmetric ion mobility spectrometry: Further insights into \u2018fermentonomics\u2019","volume":"36","author":"Arasaradnam","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Med. Eng. Technol."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"999","DOI":"10.1097\/MIB.0b013e3182802b26","article-title":"A novel tool for noninvasive diagnosis and tracking of patients with inflammatory bowel disease","volume":"19","author":"Arasaradnam","year":"2013","journal-title":"Inflamm. Bowel Dis."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11899","DOI":"10.3390\/s130911899","article-title":"Application of a novel tool for diagnosis Bile Acid Diarrhoea","volume":"13","author":"Covington","year":"2013","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"165","DOI":"10.2478\/s13382-013-0086-2","article-title":"Electronic noses for monitoring benzene occupational exposure in biological samples of Egyptian workers","volume":"26","author":"Mohamed","year":"2013","journal-title":"Int. J. Occup. Med. Environ. Health"},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"177","DOI":"10.1016\/S0925-4005(01)00625-6","article-title":"Application of the electronic nose for uremia diagnosis","volume":"76","author":"Lin","year":"2001","journal-title":"Sens. Actuat. B Chem."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"770","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.318.7186.770","article-title":"Cohort study of bacterial species causing urinary tract infection and urinary tract abnormalities in children","volume":"318","author":"Honkinen","year":"1999","journal-title":"Br. Med. J."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"289","DOI":"10.1016\/S0924-8579(99)00032-1","article-title":"Fungal urinary infections in patients at risk","volume":"11","author":"Krcmery","year":"1983","journal-title":"Int. J. Antimicrob. Agents"},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3941","DOI":"10.1007\/s00216-014-7807-7","article-title":"The need for external validation in machine olfaction: Emphasis on health-related applications","volume":"406","author":"Marco","year":"2014","journal-title":"Anal. Bioanal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1132","DOI":"10.1002\/ijc.28446","article-title":"Electronic nose can discriminate colorectal carcinoma and advanced adenomas by fecal volatile biomarker analysis: Proof of principle study","volume":"134","author":"Lentferink","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. J. Cancer"},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3409","DOI":"10.1021\/ac4000656","article-title":"Selected ion flow tube mass spectrometry analysis of volatile metabolites in urine headspace for the profiling of gastro-esophageal cancer","volume":"85","author":"Huang","year":"2013","journal-title":"Anal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1187","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2013.08.006","article-title":"Enabling a transferable calibration model for metal-oxide type electronic noses","volume":"188","author":"Bruins","year":"2013","journal-title":"Sens. Actuator B Chem."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2015.05.060","article-title":"Improving the transfer ability of prediction models for electronic noses","volume":"220","author":"Yan","year":"2015","journal-title":"Sens. Actuator B Chem."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/16\/10\/1708\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T19:33:03Z","timestamp":1760211183000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/16\/10\/1708"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2016,10,14]]},"references-count":81,"journal-issue":{"issue":"10","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2016,10]]}},"alternative-id":["s16101708"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s16101708","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2016,10,14]]}}}