{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,16]],"date-time":"2026-05-16T07:58:39Z","timestamp":1778918319686,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":76,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"11","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2016,10,26]],"date-time":"2016-10-26T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1477440000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Advances in conducting polymers (CPs) have promoted the development of diabetic monitoring and treatment, which is of great significance in human healthcare and modern medicine. CPs are special polymers with physical and electrochemical features resembling metals, inorganic semiconductors and non-conducting polymers. To improve and extend their properties, the fabrication of CPs and CP composites has attracted intensive attention in recent decades. Some CPs are biocompatible and suitable for biomedical use. Thus, the intriguing properties of CPs make wearable, noninvasive, continuous diabetes managing devices and other potential applications in diabetes possible in the near future. To highlight the recent advances of CPs and their derived materials (especially in conducting polymer hydrogels), here we discuss their fabrication and characterization, review the current state-of-the-art research in diabetes management based on these materials and describe current challenges as well as future potential research directions.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s16111787","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2016,10,26]],"date-time":"2016-10-26T05:47:55Z","timestamp":1477460875000},"page":"1787","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":33,"title":["Conducting Polymers and Their Applications in Diabetes Management"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8300-6747","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yu","family":"Zhao","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Electronic Science and Engineering, Collaborative Innovation Center of Advanced Microstructures, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210093, China"}]},{"given":"Luyao","family":"Cao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Electronic Science and Engineering, Collaborative Innovation Center of Advanced Microstructures, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210093, China"}]},{"given":"Lanlan","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Electronic Science and Engineering, Collaborative Innovation Center of Advanced Microstructures, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210093, China"}]},{"given":"Wen","family":"Cheng","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Electronic Science and Engineering, Collaborative Innovation Center of Advanced Microstructures, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210093, China"}]},{"given":"Liangliang","family":"Xu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Nanjing Foreign Language School, Nanjing 210008, China"}]},{"given":"Xinyu","family":"Ping","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Nanjing Foreign Language School, Nanjing 210008, China"}]},{"given":"Lijia","family":"Pan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Electronic Science and Engineering, Collaborative Innovation Center of Advanced Microstructures, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210093, China"}]},{"given":"Yi","family":"Shi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Electronic Science and Engineering, Collaborative Innovation Center of Advanced Microstructures, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210093, China"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2016,10,26]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3595","DOI":"10.1039\/c3cs60436e","article-title":"Emerging micro- and nanotechnology based synthetic approaches for insulin delivery","volume":"43","author":"Mo","year":"2014","journal-title":"Chem. Soc. Rev."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"85","DOI":"10.1002\/adma.201303233","article-title":"25th anniversary article: Rational design and applications of hydrogels in regenerative medicine","volume":"26","author":"Annabi","year":"2014","journal-title":"Adv. Mater."},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"Ranby, B. (1993). Conjugated Polymers and Related Materials: The Interconnection of Chemical and Electronic Structures, Oxford University Press."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"578","DOI":"10.1039\/c39770000578","article-title":"Synthesis of electrically conducting organic polymers\u2014halogen derivatives of polyacetylene, (CH)x","volume":"16","author":"Shirakawa","year":"1977","journal-title":"J. Chem. Soc. Chem. Commun."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1098","DOI":"10.1103\/PhysRevLett.39.1098","article-title":"Electrical conductivity in doped polyacetylene","volume":"39","author":"Chiang","year":"1977","journal-title":"Phys. Rev. Lett."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18","DOI":"10.1063\/1.90166","article-title":"Polyacetylene, (CH)x: N-type and p-type doping and compensation","volume":"33","author":"Chiang","year":"1978","journal-title":"Appl. Phys. Lett."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"548","DOI":"10.1002\/wnan.1329","article-title":"Recent advances in nanotechnology for diabetes treatment","volume":"7","author":"DiSanto","year":"2015","journal-title":"Wiley Interdiscip. Rev. Nanomed. Nanobiotechnol."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"23931","DOI":"10.1038\/srep23931","article-title":"Evaluation of in vitro and in vivo biocompatibility of a myo-inositol hexakisphosphate gelated polyaniline hydrogel in a rat model","volume":"6","author":"Sun","year":"2016","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2591","DOI":"10.1002\/1521-3773(20010716)40:14<2591::AID-ANIE2591>3.0.CO;2-0","article-title":"Semiconducting and metallic polymers: The fourth generation of polymeric materials (Nobel lecture)","volume":"40","author":"Heeger","year":"2001","journal-title":"Angew. Chem. Int. Ed."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"014107","DOI":"10.1088\/1468-6996\/11\/1\/014107","article-title":"Conducting polymer-hydrogels for medical electrode applications","volume":"11","author":"Green","year":"2016","journal-title":"Sci. Technol. Adv. Mater."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5875","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biomaterials.2012.05.017","article-title":"Substrate dependent stability of conducting polymer coatings on medical electrodes","volume":"33","author":"Green","year":"2012","journal-title":"Biomaterials"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2120","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biomaterials.2013.11.058","article-title":"Graphene oxide doped conducting polymer nanocomposite film for electrode-tissue interface","volume":"35","author":"Tian","year":"2014","journal-title":"Biomaterials"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1846","DOI":"10.1002\/adma.201304496","article-title":"A review of organic and inorganic biomaterials for neural interfaces","volume":"26","author":"Fattahi","year":"2014","journal-title":"Adv. Mater."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9287","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1202636109","article-title":"Hierarchical nanostructured conducting polymer hydrogel with high electrochemical activity","volume":"109","author":"Pan","year":"2012","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6086","DOI":"10.1039\/C4TA00484A","article-title":"Nanostructured conductive polypyrrole hydrogels as high-performance, flexible supercapacitor electrodes","volume":"2","author":"Shi","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Mater. Chem. A"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2920","DOI":"10.1039\/C5TB00090D","article-title":"Rational design and applications of conducting polymer hydrogels as electrochemical biosensors","volume":"3","author":"Li","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Mater. Chem. B"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"509","DOI":"10.1038\/nature16521","article-title":"Fully integrated wearable sensor arrays for multiplexed in situ perspiration analysis","volume":"529","author":"Gao","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"267","DOI":"10.1002\/adhm.201200037","article-title":"Materials for diabetes therapeutics","volume":"1","author":"Bratlie","year":"2012","journal-title":"Adv. Healthc. Mater."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1650","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bios.2010.08.052","article-title":"A glucose sensor protein for continuous glucose monitoring","volume":"26","author":"Veetil","year":"2010","journal-title":"Biosens. Bioelectron."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"464","DOI":"10.1021\/acssensors.6b00250","article-title":"Wearable chemical sensors: Present challenges and future prospects","volume":"1","author":"Bandodkar","year":"2016","journal-title":"ACS Sens."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jconrel.2008.08.009","article-title":"Chemically controlled closed-loop insulin delivery","volume":"132","author":"Ravaine","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Controlled Release"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"29","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1749-6632.1962.tb13623.x","article-title":"Electrode systems for continuous monitoring in cardiovascular surgery","volume":"102","author":"Clark","year":"2006","journal-title":"Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3483","DOI":"10.3390\/s110403483","article-title":"Glucose sensing by time-resolved fluorescence of sol-gel immobilized glucose oxidase","volume":"11","author":"Esposito","year":"2011","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7807","DOI":"10.1038\/srep07807","article-title":"Rapid, sensitive, and reusable detection of glucose by a robust radiofrequency integrated passive device biosensor chip","volume":"5","author":"Kim","year":"2015","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18714","DOI":"10.3390\/s150818714","article-title":"An electrochemical glucose sensor based on zinc oxide nanorods","volume":"15","author":"Marie","year":"2015","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1825","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bios.2010.09.046","article-title":"Conductive polymer-based sensors for biomedical applications","volume":"26","author":"Nambiar","year":"2011","journal-title":"Biosens. Bioelectron."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"345","DOI":"10.1016\/S0956-5663(01)00312-8","article-title":"Application of conducting polymers to biosensors","volume":"17","author":"Gerard","year":"2002","journal-title":"Biosens. Bioelectron."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1785","DOI":"10.1021\/nl049080l","article-title":"A conducting polymer nanojunction sensor for glucose detection","volume":"4","author":"Forzani","year":"2004","journal-title":"Nano Lett."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2898","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bios.2009.02.027","article-title":"Electrodeposition of chitosan-ionic liquid-glucose oxidase biocomposite onto nano-gold electrode for amperometric glucose sensing","volume":"24","author":"Zeng","year":"2009","journal-title":"Biosens. Bioelectron."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1277","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bios.2009.10.014","article-title":"High-performance glucose amperometric biosensor based on magnetic polymeric bionanocomposites","volume":"25","author":"Zou","year":"2010","journal-title":"Biosens. Bioelectron."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2195","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bios.2005.11.014","article-title":"Facile preparation of amperometric laccase biosensor with multifunction based on the matrix of carbon nanotubes-chitosan composite","volume":"21","author":"Liu","year":"2006","journal-title":"Biosens. Bioelectron."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"617","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2005.07.010","article-title":"Carbon nanotube-epoxy composites for electrochemical sensing","volume":"113","author":"Pumera","year":"2006","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators B Chem."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"79","DOI":"10.1002\/adfm.200500594","article-title":"Effect of immobilized nerve growth factor on conductive polymers: Electrical properties and cellular response","volume":"17","author":"Kim","year":"2007","journal-title":"Adv. Funct. Mater."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"723","DOI":"10.1016\/S0013-4686(00)00658-7","article-title":"Immobilization of lactate dehydrogenase on electrochemically prepared polypyrrole\u2013polyvinylsulphonate composite films for application to lactate biosensors","volume":"46","author":"Chaubey","year":"2001","journal-title":"Electrochim. Acta"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"249","DOI":"10.1385\/ABAB:96:1-3:249","article-title":"Coimmobilization of urease and glutamate dehydrogenase in electrochemically prepared polypyrrole-polyvinyl sulfonate films","volume":"96","author":"Gambhir","year":"2001","journal-title":"Appl. Biochem. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"159","DOI":"10.1016\/0928-4931(95)00113-1","article-title":"Papers presented at the international conference on molecular electronics and biocomputingapplication of polyaniline-Langmuir-Blodgett films as a glucose biosensor","volume":"3","author":"Ramanathan","year":"1995","journal-title":"Mater. Sci. Eng. C"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"662","DOI":"10.1002\/1097-4628(20001017)78:3<662::AID-APP220>3.0.CO;2-T","article-title":"Covalent immobilization of glucose oxidase to poly(O-amino benzoic acid) for application to glucose biosensor","volume":"78","author":"Ramanathan","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Appl. Polym. Sci."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"671","DOI":"10.1016\/j.progpolymsci.2010.07.010","article-title":"One-dimensional conducting polymer nanocomposites: Synthesis, properties and applications","volume":"36","author":"Lu","year":"2011","journal-title":"Prog. Polym. Sci."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"589","DOI":"10.1016\/j.copbio.2006.10.008","article-title":"Electrical contacting of redox proteins by nanotechnological means","volume":"17","author":"Willner","year":"2006","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"133","DOI":"10.1016\/S0956-5663(00)00117-2","article-title":"Fabrication of ultra-thin polypyrrole\u2013glucose oxidase film from supporting electrolyte-free monomer solution for potentiometric biosensing of glucose","volume":"16","author":"Adeloju","year":"2001","journal-title":"Biosens. Bioelectron."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"386","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bios.2015.12.055","article-title":"Recent advances on developing 3rd generation enzyme electrode for biosensor applications","volume":"79","author":"Das","year":"2016","journal-title":"Biosens. Bioelectron."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2811","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bios.2010.10.017","article-title":"Recent advances in polyaniline based biosensors","volume":"26","author":"Dhand","year":"2011","journal-title":"Biosens. Bioelectron."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1638","DOI":"10.1021\/ac802421h","article-title":"Detection of glucose based on direct electron transfer reaction of glucose oxidase immobilized on highly ordered polyaniline nanotubes","volume":"81","author":"Wang","year":"2009","journal-title":"Anal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1996","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bios.2005.09.014","article-title":"Glucose biosensor based on Au nanoparticles-conductive polyaniline nanocomposite","volume":"21","author":"Xian","year":"2006","journal-title":"Biosens. Bioelectron."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1305","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bios.2004.04.024","article-title":"Glucose biosensor based on platinum microparticles dispersed in nano-fibrous polyaniline","volume":"20","author":"Zhou","year":"2005","journal-title":"Biosens. Bioelectron."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"187","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2013.03.140","article-title":"Gold nanoparticle and conducting polymer-polyaniline-based nanocomposites for glucose biosensor design","volume":"189","author":"Mazeiko","year":"2013","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators B Chem."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"56","DOI":"10.1038\/354056a0","article-title":"Helical microtubules of graphitic carbon","volume":"354","author":"Iijima","year":"1991","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"177","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcat.2005.12.014","article-title":"Gold nanoparticles dispersed polyaniline grafted multiwall carbon nanotubes as newer electrocatalysts: Preparation and performances for methanol oxidation","volume":"238","author":"Santhosh","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Catal."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"39","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aca.2006.05.064","article-title":"Enhancement of a conducting polymer-based biosensor using carbon nanotube-doped polyaniline","volume":"575","author":"Luo","year":"2006","journal-title":"Anal. Chim. Acta"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"75","DOI":"10.1016\/S1567-5394(01)00163-3","article-title":"Polyaniline-modified cholinesterase sensor for pesticide determination","volume":"55","author":"Ivanov","year":"2002","journal-title":"Bioelectrochemistry"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"522","DOI":"10.1002\/(SICI)1521-4095(200004)12:7<522::AID-ADMA522>3.0.CO;2-S","article-title":"Carbon nanotube and polypyrrole composites: Coating and doping","volume":"12","author":"Chen","year":"2000","journal-title":"Adv. Mater."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1306","DOI":"10.1016\/j.msec.2008.10.031","article-title":"Amperometric biosensor based on carbon nanotubes coated with polyaniline\/dendrimer-encapsulated Pt nanoparticles for glucose detection","volume":"29","author":"Xu","year":"2009","journal-title":"Mater. Sci. Eng. C"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"993","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2016.08.083","article-title":"Graphene\/conducting polymer nano-composite loaded screen printed carbon sensor for simultaneous determination of dopamine and 5-hydroxytryptamine","volume":"239","author":"Raj","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators B Chem."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"562","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2013.09.049","article-title":"Graphene\/polyaniline\/gold nanoparticles nanocomposite for the direct electron transfer of glucose oxidase and glucose biosensing","volume":"190","author":"Xu","year":"2014","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators B Chem."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1637","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bios.2008.01.031","article-title":"Carbon post-microarrays for glucose sensors","volume":"23","author":"Xu","year":"2008","journal-title":"Biosens. Bioelectron."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"876","DOI":"10.1016\/j.progpolymsci.2007.05.012","article-title":"Conducting polymers in biomedical engineering","volume":"32","author":"Guimard","year":"2007","journal-title":"Prog. Polym. Sci."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1254","DOI":"10.1021\/cm103498s","article-title":"Degradable and electroactive hydrogels with tunable electrical conductivity and swelling behavior","volume":"23","author":"Guo","year":"2011","journal-title":"Chem. Mater."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"664","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cbpa.2006.09.018","article-title":"Electron-conducting redox hydrogels: Design, characteristics and synthesis","volume":"10","author":"Heller","year":"2006","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Chem. Biol."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"153","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.bioeng.1.1.153","article-title":"Implanted electrochemical glucose sensors for the management of diabetes","volume":"1","author":"Heller","year":"1999","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Biomed. Eng."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7006","DOI":"10.1021\/ja071946c","article-title":"An electron-conducting cross-linked polyaniline-based redox hydrogel, formed in one step at pH 7.2, wires glucose oxidase","volume":"129","author":"Mano","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Am. Chem. Soc."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"199","DOI":"10.1016\/S0956-5663(03)00220-3","article-title":"Hydrogels of a conducting conjugated polymer as 3-D enzyme electrode","volume":"19","year":"2003","journal-title":"Biosens. Bioelectron."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"195","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2008.08.009","article-title":"Glucose sensor based on organic thin film transistor using glucose oxidase and conducting polymer","volume":"135","author":"Liu","year":"2008","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators B Chem"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"J23","DOI":"10.1149\/1.2800759","article-title":"Inverse opal of polyaniline for biosensors prepared by electrochemical and self-assembly techniques","volume":"155","author":"Yang","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Electrochem. Soc."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bios.2007.03.022","article-title":"Polypyrrole nanotube array sensor for enhanced adsorption of glucose oxidase in glucose biosensors","volume":"23","author":"Ekanayake","year":"2007","journal-title":"Biosens. Bioelectron."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2330","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bios.2004.07.018","article-title":"Improved selectivity and stability of glucose biosensor based on in situ electropolymerized polyaniline-polyacrylonitrile composite film","volume":"20","author":"Xue","year":"2005","journal-title":"Biosens. Bioelectron."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3540","DOI":"10.1021\/nn400482d","article-title":"Highly sensitive glucose sensor based on Pt nanoparticle\/polyaniline hydrogel heterostructures","volume":"7","author":"Zhai","year":"2013","journal-title":"ACS Nano"},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1146","DOI":"10.1021\/nl504217p","article-title":"A nanostructured conductive hydrogels-based biosensor platform for human metabolite detection","volume":"15","author":"Li","year":"2015","journal-title":"Nano Lett."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1054","DOI":"10.1002\/aic.10489","article-title":"Integrated medical feedback systems for drug delivery","volume":"51","author":"Heller","year":"2005","journal-title":"AlChE J."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"39","DOI":"10.1038\/524039a","article-title":"Diabetes: A smart insulin patch","volume":"524","author":"Veiseh","year":"2015","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"566","DOI":"10.1038\/nnano.2016.38","article-title":"A graphene-based electrochemical device with thermoresponsive microneedles for diabetes monitoring and therapy","volume":"11","author":"Lee","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nat. Nanotechnol."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8260","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1505405112","article-title":"Microneedle-array patches loaded with hypoxia-sensitive vesicles provide fast glucose-responsive insulin delivery","volume":"112","author":"Yu","year":"2015","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"529","DOI":"10.1038\/nrd836","article-title":"New horizons--alternative routes for insulin therapy","volume":"1","author":"Owens","year":"2002","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Drug Discov."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1521","DOI":"10.1016\/j.addr.2007.08.019","article-title":"Current challenges in non-invasive insulin delivery systems: A comparative review","volume":"59","author":"Khafagy","year":"2007","journal-title":"Adv. Drug Deliv. Rev."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"24961","DOI":"10.3390\/s151024961","article-title":"A novel scheme and evaluations on a long-term and continuous biosensor platform integrated with a dental implant fixture and its prosthetic abutment","volume":"15","author":"Li","year":"2015","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"171","DOI":"10.1002\/jbm.a.30286","article-title":"Controlled release of heparin from polypyrrole-poly(vinyl alcohol) assembly by electrical stimulation","volume":"73","author":"Li","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Biomed. Mater. Res. Part A"},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8952","DOI":"10.1016\/j.actbio.2013.06.029","article-title":"Dissolving polymer microneedle patches for rapid and efficient transdermal delivery of insulin to diabetic rats","volume":"9","author":"Ling","year":"2013","journal-title":"Acta Biomater."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/16\/11\/1787\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T19:34:00Z","timestamp":1760211240000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/16\/11\/1787"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2016,10,26]]},"references-count":76,"journal-issue":{"issue":"11","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2016,11]]}},"alternative-id":["s16111787"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s16111787","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2016,10,26]]}}}