{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,25]],"date-time":"2026-03-25T23:58:47Z","timestamp":1774483127576,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":42,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"11","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2016,11,10]],"date-time":"2016-11-10T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1478736000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000104","name":"National Aeronautics and Space Administration","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["NNX12AH22A"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["NNX12AH22A"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000104","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000001","name":"National Science Foundation","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["HRD 1345215"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["HRD 1345215"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000001","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Real-time monitoring of extracellular neurotransmitter concentration offers great benefits for diagnosis and treatment of neurological disorders and diseases. This paper presents the study design and results of a miniaturized and wireless optical neurotransmitter sensor (MWONS) for real-time monitoring of brain dopamine concentration. MWONS is based on fluorescent sensing principles and comprises a microspectrometer unit, a microcontroller for data acquisition, and a Bluetooth wireless network for real-time monitoring. MWONS has a custom-designed application software that controls the operation parameters for excitation light sources, data acquisition, and signal processing. MWONS successfully demonstrated a measurement capability with a limit of detection down to a 100 nanomole dopamine concentration, and high selectivity to ascorbic acid (90:1) and uric acid (36:1).<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s16111894","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2016,11,10]],"date-time":"2016-11-10T10:51:39Z","timestamp":1478775099000},"page":"1894","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":20,"title":["Miniaturized and Wireless Optical Neurotransmitter Sensor for Real-Time Monitoring of Dopamine in the Brain"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"given":"Min","family":"Kim","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for Materials Research, Norfolk State University, Norfolk, VA 23504, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Hargsoon","family":"Yoon","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for Materials Research, Norfolk State University, Norfolk, VA 23504, USA"},{"name":"Neural Engineering and Nano Electronics Laboratory, Department of Engineering, Norfolk State University, Norfolk, VA 23504, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Sang","family":"Choi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"NASA Langley Research Center, Hampton, VA 23681, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Fei","family":"Zhao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Gachon University, Seongnam 13120, Korea"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Jongsung","family":"Kim","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Gachon University, Seongnam 13120, Korea"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Kyo","family":"Song","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for Materials Research, Norfolk State University, Norfolk, VA 23504, USA"},{"name":"Neural Engineering and Nano Electronics Laboratory, Department of Engineering, Norfolk State University, Norfolk, VA 23504, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Uhn","family":"Lee","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neurosurgery, Gachon University of Medicine and Science, Incheon 21936, Korea"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2016,11,10]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"583","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuropharm.2007.07.007","article-title":"The Yin and Yang of Dopamine Release, a New Perspective","volume":"53","author":"Goto","year":"2007","journal-title":"Neuropharmacology"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"223","DOI":"10.1007\/BF01245233","article-title":"In vivo regulation of extracellular dopamine in the neostriatum: Influence of impulse activity and local excitatory amino acids","volume":"91","author":"Keefe","year":"1993","journal-title":"J. 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