{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,29]],"date-time":"2026-05-29T11:16:30Z","timestamp":1780053390310,"version":"3.54.0"},"reference-count":35,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"12","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2016,12,17]],"date-time":"2016-12-17T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1481932800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Vale Institute of Technology (ITV)","award":["Development and evaluation of autonomous cooperative vehicles for mapping activities in the mining industry."],"award-info":[{"award-number":["Development and evaluation of autonomous cooperative vehicles for mapping activities in the mining industry."]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Recent advances in the research of autonomous vehicles have showed a vast range of applications, such as exploration, surveillance and environmental monitoring. Considering the mining industry, it is possible to use such vehicles in the prospection of minerals of commercial interest beneath the ground. However, tasks such as geophysical surveys are highly dependent on specific sensors, which mostly are not designed to be used in these new range of autonomous vehicles. In this work, we propose a novel magnetic survey pipeline that aims to increase versatility, speed and robustness by using autonomous rotary-wing Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs). We also discuss the development of a state-of-the-art three-axis fluxgate, where our goal in this work was to refine and adjust the sensor topology and coupled electronics specifically for this type of vehicle and application. The sensor was built with two ring-cores using a specially developed stress-annealed CoFeSiB amorphous ribbon, in order to get sufficient resolution to detect concentrations of small ferrous minerals. Finally, we report on the results of experiments performed with a real UAV in an outdoor environment, showing the efficacy of the methodology in detecting an artificial ferrous anomaly.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s16122169","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2016,12,23]],"date-time":"2016-12-23T04:09:09Z","timestamp":1482466149000},"page":"2169","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":37,"title":["Autonomous Aeromagnetic Surveys Using a Fluxgate Magnetometer"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1781-7186","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Douglas","family":"Macharet","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Computer Science, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte 31270-901, Brazil"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"H\u00e9ctor","family":"Perez-Imaz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Computer Science, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte 31270-901, Brazil"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Paulo","family":"Rezeck","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Computer Science, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte 31270-901, Brazil"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2577-2886","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Guilherme","family":"Potje","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Computer Science, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte 31270-901, Brazil"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Luiz","family":"Benyosef","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Observat\u00f3rio Nacional\/MCTI, Coordena\u00e7\u00e3o de Geof\u00edsica, Rio de Janeiro 20921-400, Brazil"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Andr\u00e9","family":"Wiermann","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Observat\u00f3rio Nacional\/MCTI, Coordena\u00e7\u00e3o de Geof\u00edsica, Rio de Janeiro 20921-400, Brazil"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Gustavo","family":"Freitas","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Vale Institute of Technology, Ouro Preto 35400-000, Brazil"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Luis","family":"Garcia","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Vale Institute of Technology, Ouro Preto 35400-000, Brazil"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mario","family":"Campos","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Computer Science, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte 31270-901, Brazil"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2016,12,17]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Thrun, S. (2003). Exploring Artificial Intelligence in the New Millennium, Morgan Kaufmann Publishers Inc."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1451","DOI":"10.1016\/0956-716X(95)00425-U","article-title":"Improvements on CoFeSiB amorphous ribbon for fluxgate sensor cores","volume":"33","author":"Benyosef","year":"1995","journal-title":"Scr. Metall. Mater."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kennedy, J., Leveneur, J., Turner, J., Futter, J., and Williams, G.V. (2014, January 18\u201320). Applications of nanoparticle-based fluxgate magnetometers for positioning and location. Proceedings of the 2014 IEEE Sensors Applications Symposium (SAS), Queenstown, New Zealand.","DOI":"10.1109\/SAS.2014.6798951"},{"key":"ref_4","unstructured":"Kennedy, J.V., Leveneur, J., and Williams, G.V.M. (2015). Wide Dynamic Range Magnetometer. (20,150,323,615), US Patent."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"053111","DOI":"10.1063\/1.3553274","article-title":"Large room temperature magnetoresistance in ion beam synthesized surface Fe nanoclusters on SiO2","volume":"98","author":"Leveneur","year":"2011","journal-title":"Appl. Phys. Lett."},{"key":"ref_6","unstructured":"Jankowski, J., Sucksdorff, C., and Geomagnetism, I.A. (1996). IAGA Guide for Magnetic Measurements and Observatory Practice, Boulder, CO."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1299","DOI":"10.1109\/TMAG.1984.1063504","article-title":"Noise in amorphous magnetic materials","volume":"20","author":"Shirae","year":"1984","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Magn."},{"key":"ref_8","unstructured":"Bartington MAG03 Fluxgate Three Axis Magnetometer. Available online: http:\/\/www.bartington.com\/presentation\/mag-03-three-axis-magnetic-field-sensor."},{"key":"ref_9","unstructured":"Stefan-Mayer FLC3-70 3-Axis Magnetic Field Sensor. Available online: http:\/\/www.stefan-mayer.com\/en\/products\/magnetometers-and-sensors\/magnetic-field-sensor-flc3-70.html."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"549","DOI":"10.1007\/BF02824962","article-title":"Melt-spinning technique for preparation of metallic glasses","volume":"4","author":"Budhani","year":"1982","journal-title":"Bull. Mater. Sci."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"145","DOI":"10.1590\/S1516-14392008000200006","article-title":"Optimization of the magnetic properties of materials for fluxgate sensors","volume":"11","author":"Benyosef","year":"2008","journal-title":"Mater. Res."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"61","DOI":"10.1016\/0304-8853(92)90291-U","article-title":"A domain study of magnetization processes in a stress-annealed metallic glass ribbon for fluxgate sensors","volume":"117","author":"Nielsen","year":"1992","journal-title":"J. Magn. Magn. Mater."},{"key":"ref_13","first-page":"140","article-title":"Effect of Stresses on the Magnetic Properties of Amorphous Ribbons for Fluxgate magnetometers","volume":"3","author":"Benyosef","year":"1996","journal-title":"J. Adv. Mater."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"241","DOI":"10.1088\/0022-3735\/12\/4\/001","article-title":"The fluxgate magnetometer","volume":"12","author":"Primdahl","year":"1979","journal-title":"J. Phys. E Sci. Instrum."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"87","DOI":"10.1002\/rob.4620050202","article-title":"Region filling operations with random obstacle avoidance for mobile robots","volume":"5","author":"Cao","year":"1988","journal-title":"J. Robot. Syst."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"462","DOI":"10.1109\/70.59357","article-title":"Dynamic path planning in sensor-based terrain acquisition","volume":"6","author":"Lumelsky","year":"1990","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Robot. Autom."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"331","DOI":"10.1177\/027836402320556359","article-title":"Morse decompositions for coverage tasks","volume":"21","author":"Acar","year":"2002","journal-title":"Int. J. Robot. Res."},{"key":"ref_18","unstructured":"Peless, E., Abramson, S., Friedman, R., and Peleg, I. (2013). Area Coverage with an Autonomous Robot. (6,615,108), US Patent."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Xu, A., Viriyasuthee, C., and Rekleitis, I. (2011, January 9\u201313). Optimal complete terrain coverage using an unmanned aerial vehicle. Proceedings of the 2011 IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation (ICRA), Shanghai, China.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICRA.2011.5979707"},{"key":"ref_20","unstructured":"Choset, H., and Pignon, P. (1998). Field and Service Robotics, Springer."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"667","DOI":"10.1002\/rob.20403","article-title":"Aerial remote sensing in agriculture: A practical approach to area coverage and path planning for fleets of mini aerial robots","volume":"28","author":"Barrientos","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Field Robot."},{"key":"ref_22","unstructured":"Maza, I., and Ollero, A. (2007). Distributed Autonomous Robotic Systems 6, Springer."},{"key":"ref_23","unstructured":"Santamaria, E., Segor, F., and Tchouchenkov, I. (2015, January 24\u201327). Rapid Aerial Mapping with Multiple Heterogeneous Unmanned Vehicles. Proceedings of the 10th International ISCRAM Conference, Kristiansand, Norway."},{"key":"ref_24","unstructured":"Jiao, Y.S., Wang, X.M., Chen, H., and Li, Y. (2010, January 15\u201317). Research on the coverage path planning of uavs for polygon areas. Proceedings of the 2010 the 5th IEEE Conference on Industrial Electronics and Applications (ICIEA), Taichung, Taiwan."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"27783","DOI":"10.3390\/s151127783","article-title":"Multi-UAV Routing for Area Coverage and Remote Sensing with Minimum Time","volume":"15","author":"Avellar","year":"2015","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Toth, P., and Vigo, D. (2001). The Vehicle Routing Problem, Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics.","DOI":"10.1137\/1.9780898718515"},{"key":"ref_27","unstructured":"Reeves, C. (2005). Aeromagnetic Surveys: Principles, Practice & Interpretation, Geosoft."},{"key":"ref_28","unstructured":"Ublox NEO-7 Series. Available online: https:\/\/www.u-blox.com\/en\/product\/neo-7-series."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"251","DOI":"10.1145\/359094.359101","article-title":"New methods to color the vertices of a graph","volume":"22","year":"1979","journal-title":"Commun. ACM"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"995","DOI":"10.1029\/EO064i052p00995","article-title":"Digital images of combined oceanic and continental data sets and their use in tectonic studies","volume":"64","author":"Haxby","year":"1983","journal-title":"Eos Trans. Am. Geophys. Union"},{"key":"ref_31","unstructured":"Stein, M.L. (2012). Interpolation of Spatial Data: Some Theory for Kriging, Springer."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"De Boor, C. (1978). A Practical Guide to Splines, Springer. Applied Mathematical Sciences.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4612-6333-3"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"375","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1007586507433","article-title":"An experimental comparison of ordinary and universal kriging and inverse distance weighting","volume":"31","author":"Zimmerman","year":"1999","journal-title":"Math. Geol."},{"key":"ref_34","unstructured":"McKay, M.D., and Anderson, M.O. (,  2011). Development of Autonomous Magnetometer Rotorcraft For Wide Area Assessment. Proceedings of the 13th Robotics & Remote Systems for Hazardous Environments and 11th Emergency Preparedness & Response, LaGrange Park, IL, USA."},{"key":"ref_35","unstructured":"Macharet, D.G., Perez-Imaz, H.I.A., Rezeck, P.A.F., Potje, G.A., Benyosef, L.C.C., Wiermann, A., Freitas, G.M., Garcia, L.G.U., and Campos, M.F.M. Autonomous Aeromagnetic Surveys Using a Fluxgate Magnetometer. Available online: https:\/\/youtu.be\/Z64kTn6kIs8."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/16\/12\/2169\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T19:28:47Z","timestamp":1760210927000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/16\/12\/2169"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2016,12,17]]},"references-count":35,"journal-issue":{"issue":"12","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2016,12]]}},"alternative-id":["s16122169"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s16122169","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2016,12,17]]}}}