{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,22]],"date-time":"2026-01-22T22:45:08Z","timestamp":1769121908213,"version":"3.49.0"},"reference-count":99,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"12","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2016,12,20]],"date-time":"2016-12-20T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1482192000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>As a result of the progressive implantation of the Industry 4.0 paradigm, many industries are experimenting a revolution that shipyards cannot ignore. Therefore, the application of the principles of Industry 4.0 to shipyards are leading to the creation of Shipyards 4.0. Due to this, Navantia, one of the 10 largest shipbuilders in the world, is updating its whole inner workings to keep up with the near-future challenges that a Shipyard 4.0 will have to face. Such challenges can be divided into three groups: the vertical integration of production systems, the horizontal integration of a new generation of value creation networks, and the re-engineering of the entire production chain, making changes that affect the entire life cycle of each piece of a ship. Pipes, which exist in a huge number and varied typology on a ship, are one of the key pieces, and its monitoring constitutes a prospective cyber-physical system. Their improved identification, traceability, and indoor location, from production and through their life, can enhance shipyard productivity and safety. In order to perform such tasks, this article first conducts a thorough analysis of the shipyard environment. From this analysis, the essential hardware and software technical requirements are determined. Next, the concept of smart pipe is presented and defined as an object able to transmit signals periodically that allows for providing enhanced services in a shipyard. In order to build a smart pipe system, different technologies are selected and evaluated, concluding that passive and active RFID (Radio Frequency Identification) are currently the most appropriate technologies to create it. Furthermore, some promising indoor positioning results obtained in a pipe workshop are presented, showing that multi-antenna algorithms and Kalman filtering can help to stabilize Received Signal Strength (RSS) and improve the overall accuracy of the system.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s16122186","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2016,12,23]],"date-time":"2016-12-23T04:09:09Z","timestamp":1482466149000},"page":"2186","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":56,"title":["Smart Pipe System for a Shipyard 4.0"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4991-6808","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Paula","family":"Fraga-Lamas","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Unidad Mixta de Investigaci\u00f3n Navantia-UDC, Universidade da Coru\u00f1a, Edificio Talleres Tecnol\u00f3gicos, Mendiz\u00e1bal s\/n, Ferrol 15403, Spain"}]},{"given":"Diego","family":"Noceda-Davila","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Unidad Mixta de Investigaci\u00f3n Navantia-UDC, Universidade da Coru\u00f1a, Edificio Talleres Tecnol\u00f3gicos, Mendiz\u00e1bal s\/n, Ferrol 15403, Spain"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2179-5917","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Tiago","family":"Fern\u00e1ndez-Caram\u00e9s","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Unidad Mixta de Investigaci\u00f3n Navantia-UDC, Universidade da Coru\u00f1a, Edificio Talleres Tecnol\u00f3gicos, Mendiz\u00e1bal s\/n, Ferrol 15403, Spain"}]},{"given":"Manuel","family":"D\u00edaz-Bouza","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Unidad Mixta de Investigaci\u00f3n Navantia-UDC, Universidade da Coru\u00f1a, Edificio Talleres Tecnol\u00f3gicos, Mendiz\u00e1bal s\/n, Ferrol 15403, Spain"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4452-0780","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Miguel","family":"Vilar-Montesinos","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Unidad Mixta de Investigaci\u00f3n Navantia-UDC, Universidade da Coru\u00f1a, Edificio Talleres Tecnol\u00f3gicos, Mendiz\u00e1bal s\/n, Ferrol 15403, Spain"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2016,12,20]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Cornelius, B., and Wee, D. (2015). Manufacturing\u2019s Next Act, McKinsey & Company. White Paper."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"PricewaterhouseCoopers (PwC) (2016). 2016 Global Industry 4.0 Survey. Industry 4.0: Building the Digital Enterprise, PwC. Technical Report."},{"key":"ref_3","first-page":"1","article-title":"Implementing smart factory of industrie 4.0: An outlook","volume":"2016","author":"Wang","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int. J. Distrib. Sens. Netw."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12345","DOI":"10.3390\/s130912345","article-title":"Sensors systems for the automation of operations in the ship repair industry","volume":"13","author":"Navarro","year":"2013","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_5","unstructured":"Navantia\u2019s web page. Available online: https:\/\/www.navantia.es\/index.php."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fa\u00ed\u00f1a, A., Souto, D., Deibe, A., L\u00f3pez-Pe\u00f1a, F., Duro, R.J., and Fern\u00e1ndez, X. (2009, January 12\u201317). Development of a climbing robot for grit blasting operations in shipyards. Proceedings of the ICRA\u201909 2009 IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation, New York, NY, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/ROBOT.2009.5152584"},{"key":"ref_7","unstructured":"Kuss, A., Schneider, U., Dietz, T., and Verl, A. (2016, January 21\u201322). Detection of assembly variations for automatic program adaptation in robotic welding systems. Proceedings of the ISR 2016 47th International Symposium on Robotics, Munich, Germany."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mun, S., Nam, M., Lee, J., Doh, K., Park, G., Lee, H., Kim, D., and Lee, J. (2015, January 7\u201311). Sub-assembly welding robot system at shipyards. Proceedings of the 2015 IEEE International Conference on Advanced Intelligent Mechatronics (AIM), Busan, Korea.","DOI":"10.1109\/AIM.2015.7222754"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"377","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rcim.2010.08.006","article-title":"Development and application of an intelligent welding robot system for shipbuilding","volume":"27","author":"Lee","year":"2011","journal-title":"Robot. Comput. Integr. Manuf."},{"key":"ref_10","unstructured":"Kim, M.Y., Cho, H.S., and Kim, J. (November, January 29). Neural network-based recognition of navigation environment for intelligent shipyard welding robots. Proceedings of the 14th IEEE\/RSJ International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems, Maui, HI, USA."},{"key":"ref_11","unstructured":"Kim, M.Y., Ko, K., Cho, H.S., and Kim, J. (November, January 31). Visual sensing and recognition of welding environment for intelligent shipyard welding robots. Proceedings of the 13th IEEE\/RSJ International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems, Takamatsu, Japan."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kawakubo, S., Chansavang, A., Tanaka, S., and Iwasaki, T. (2006, January 16\u201318). Wireless network system for indoor human positioning. Proceedings of the 1st International Symposium on Wireless Pervasive Computing, Phuket, Thailand.","DOI":"10.1109\/ISWPC.2006.1613611"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2981","DOI":"10.3390\/s140202981","article-title":"Wireless remote monitoring of toxic gases in Shipbuilding","volume":"14","year":"2014","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"29535","DOI":"10.3390\/s151129535","article-title":"A real-time monitoring system of industry carbon monoxide based on Wireless Sensor Networks","volume":"15","author":"Yang","year":"2015","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Do Amaral Bichet, M.A., Hasegawa, E.K., Sol\u00e9, R., and N\u00fa\u00f1ez, A. (2013, January 14\u201315). Utilization of hyper environments for tracking and monitoring of processes and supplies in construction and assembly industries. Proceedings of the Symposium on Computing and Automation for Offshore Shipbuilding (NAVCOMP), Rio Grande, Brazil.","DOI":"10.1109\/NAVCOMP.2013.21"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wong, S.F., and Zheng, Y. (2013, January 10\u201313). The effect of metal noise factor to RFID location system. Proceedings of the IEEE International Conference on Industrial Engineering and Engineering Management, Bangkok, Thailand.","DOI":"10.1109\/IEEM.2013.6962424"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Deavours, D.D. (2010, January 14\u201316). Improving the near-metal performance of UHF RFID tags. Proceedings of the IEEE International Conference on RFID, Orlando, FL, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/RFID.2010.5467273"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Arumugan, D.D., and Engels, D.W. (2008, January 16\u201317). Characterization of RF propagation in helical and toroidal metal pipes for passive RFID Systems. Proceedings of the IEEE International Conference on RFID, Las Vegas, NV, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/RFID.2008.4519364"},{"key":"ref_19","unstructured":"Rao, K.V.S., Lam, S.F., and Nikitin, P.V. (2010, January 7\u201310). UHF RFID tag for metal containers. Proceedings of the Asia-Pacific Microwave Conference, Yokohama, Japan."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bovelli, S., Neubauer, F., and Heller, C. (2006, January 10\u201315). Mount-on-Metal RFID transponders for automatic identification of containers. Proceedings of the 36th European Microwave Conference, Manchester, UK.","DOI":"10.1109\/EUMC.2006.281004"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1158","DOI":"10.1109\/LAWP.2011.2172179","article-title":"UHF RFID tag antenna for embedded use in a concrete floor","volume":"10","author":"Jeong","year":"2011","journal-title":"IEEE Antennas Wirel. Propag. Lett."},{"key":"ref_22","unstructured":"Heiss, M., and Hildebrant, R. (2013, January 11\u201312). High-temperature UHF RFID sensor measurements in a full-metal environment. Proceedings of the 2013 European Conference on Smart Objects, Systems and Technologies (SmartSysTech), Nuremberg, Germany."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compag.2014.08.015","article-title":"A readability analysis for QR code application in a traceability system","volume":"109","author":"Tarjan","year":"2014","journal-title":"Comput. Electron. Agric."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"283","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rcim.2012.08.001","article-title":"RFID-enabled real-time manufacturing execution system for mass-customization production","volume":"29","author":"Zhong","year":"2013","journal-title":"Robot. Comput. Integr. Manuf."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"42","DOI":"10.1016\/j.comcom.2012.01.005","article-title":"Real-time personal protective equipment monitoring system","volume":"36","author":"Escudero","year":"2012","journal-title":"Comput. Commun."},{"key":"ref_26","first-page":"1","article-title":"An intelligent power outlet system for the smart home of the internet of things","volume":"2015","year":"2015","journal-title":"Int. J. Distrib. Sens. Netw."},{"key":"ref_27","unstructured":"Barro-Torres, S.J., Fern\u00e1ndez-Caram\u00e9s, T.M., Gonz\u00e1lez-L\u00f3pez, M., and Escudero-Casc\u00f3n, C.J. (2010, January 6\u20137). Maritime freight container management system using RFID. Proceedings of the Third International EURASIP Workshop on RFID Technology, La Manga del Mar Menor, Spain."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7571","DOI":"10.3390\/s150407571","article-title":"NFC internal: An indoor navigation system","volume":"15","author":"Ozdenizci","year":"2015","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kitazawa, M., Takahashi, S., Takahashi, T.B., Yoshikawa, A., and Terano, T. (2016, January 10\u201314). Improving a cellular manufacturing system through real time-simulation and-measurement. Proceedings of the 2016 IEEE 40th Annual Computer Software and Applications Conference (COMPSAC), Atlanta, GA, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/COMPSAC.2016.135"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"614","DOI":"10.1109\/TIM.2015.2506239","article-title":"Indoor localization using 802.11 time differences of arrival","volume":"65","author":"Makki","year":"2016","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Instrum. Meas."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"466","DOI":"10.1109\/COMST.2015.2464084","article-title":"Wi-Fi Fingerprint-based indoor positioning: Recent advances and comparisons","volume":"18","author":"He","year":"2016","journal-title":"IEEE Commun. Surv. Tutor."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7204","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2016.2592359","article-title":"Flash flood detection in urban cities using ultrasonic and infrared sensors","volume":"16","author":"Mousa","year":"2016","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_33","unstructured":"Ijaz, F., Yang, H.K., Ahmad, A.W., and Lee, C. (2013, January 27\u201330). Indoor positioning: A review of indoor ultrasonic positioning systems. Proceedings of the 2013 15th International Conference on Advanced Communication Technology (ICACT), PyeongChang, Korea."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Alarifi, A., Al-Salman, A., Alsaleh, M., Alnafessah, A., Al-Hadhrami, S., Al-Ammar, M.A., and Al-Khalifa, H.S. (2016). Ultra wideband indoor positioning technologies: Analysis and recent advances. Sensors, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/s16050707"},{"key":"ref_35","unstructured":"Ruan, Q., Xu, W., and Wang, G. (2011, January 25\u201327). RFID and ZigBee based manufacturing monitoring system. Proceedings of the 2011 International Conference on Electric Information and Control Engineering (ICEICE), Wuhan, China."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ergeerts, G., Nikodem, M., Subotic, D., Surmacz, T., Wojciechowski, B., de Meulenaere, P., and Weyn, M. (2015, January 4\u20136). DASH7 alliance protocol in monitoring applications. Proceedings of the 2015 10th International Conference on P2P, Parallel, Grid, Cloud and Internet Computing (3PGCIC), Krakow, Poland.","DOI":"10.1109\/3PGCIC.2015.93"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-642-37893-5_3","article-title":"ANT+ medical health kit for older adults","volume":"Volume 61","author":"Belchior","year":"2013","journal-title":"Wireless Mobile Communication and Healthcare"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4134","DOI":"10.3390\/s150204134","article-title":"Efficient evaluation of wireless real-time control networks","volume":"15","author":"Horvath","year":"2015","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Augustin, A., Yi, J., Clausen, T., and Townsley, W.M. (2016). A study of LoRa: Long range & low power networks for the internet of things. Sensors, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/s16091466"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Margelis, G., Piechocki, R., Kaleshi, D., and Thomas, P. (2015, January 14\u201316). Low Throughput Networks for the IoT: Lessons learned from industrial implementations. Proceedings of the 2015 IEEE 2nd World Forum on Internet of Things (WF-IoT), Milan, Italy.","DOI":"10.1109\/WF-IoT.2015.7389049"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Boukhtouta, A., and Berger, J. (2014, January 1\u20133). Improving in-transit and in-theatre asset visibility of the Canadian Armed Forces supply chain network. Proceedings of the 2014 International Conference on Advanced Logistics and Transport (ICALT), Hammamet, Tunisia.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICAdLT.2014.6864109"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fraga-Lamas, P., Castedo-Ribas, L., Morales-M\u00e9ndez, A., and Camas-Albar, J.M. (2016, January 23\u201324). Evolving military broadband wireless communication systems: WiMAX, LTE and WLAN. Proceedings of the International Conference on Military Communications and Information Systems (ICMCIS), Brussels, Belgium.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICMCIS.2016.7496570"},{"key":"ref_43","unstructured":"Camas-Albar, J.M., Morales-M\u00e9ndez, A., Castedo-Ribas, L., Fraga-Lamas, P., Brown, C., Tschauner, M., and Hayri-Kucuktabak, M. (2015). LTE vs. WiMAX for Military Applications, North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO). Technical Report."},{"key":"ref_44","unstructured":"Fraga-Lamas, P., Camas, J.M., Carro, A., Su\u00e1rez, P., Castedo, L., Garc\u00eda-Naya, J.A., and Morales, A. (2011, January 9\u201310). Mobile WiMAX for next generation tactical wireless networks. Proceedings of the Information Systems Technology Panel Symposium on Emerged\/Emerging \u2019Disruptive\u2019 Technologies (NATO IST-099 \/ RSY-024), Madrid, Spain."},{"key":"ref_45","first-page":"153","article-title":"Unleashing the potential of LTE for next generation railway communications","volume":"Volume 9066","author":"Castedo","year":"2015","journal-title":"Communication Technologies for Vehicles, Proceedings of the 8th International Workshop on Communication Technologies for Vehicles (Nets4Cars\/Nets4Trains\/Nets4Aircraft 2015), Sousse, Tunisia, 6\u20138 May 2015"},{"key":"ref_46","unstructured":"Rodr\u00edguez-Pi\u00f1eiro, J., Fraga-Lamas, P., Garc\u00eda-Naya, J.A., and Castedo, L. (2012, January 28\u201330). Long term evolution security analysis for railway communications. Proceedings of the IEEE Congreso de Ingenier\u00eda en Electro-Electr\u00f3nica, Comunicaciones y Computaci\u00f3n (ARANDUCON 2012), Asunci\u00f3n, Paraguay."},{"key":"ref_47","unstructured":"Fraga-Lamas, P., Rodr\u00edguez-Pi\u00f1eiro, J., Garc\u00eda-Naya, J.A., and Castedo, L. (2012, January 28\u201330). A survey on LTE networks for railway services. Proceedings of the IEEE Congreso de Ingenier\u00eda en Electro-Electr\u00f3nica, Comunicaciones y Computaci\u00f3n (ARANDUCON 2012), Asunci\u00f3n, Paraguay."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, H., Chen, Y., and He, Z. (2012, January 21\u201323). The survey of RFID attacks and defenses. Proceedings of the 8th International Conference on Wireless Communications, Networking and Mobile Computing, Shanghai, China.","DOI":"10.1109\/WiCOM.2012.6478720"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Crepaldi, P.C., and Pimenta, T.C. (2016). Radio Frequency Identification, INTECH. [1st ed.]. in press.","DOI":"10.5772\/62606"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fraga-Lamas, P., Fern\u00e1ndez-Caram\u00e9s, T.M., Su\u00e1rez-Albela, M., Castedo, L., and Gonz\u00e1lez-L\u00f3pez, M. (2016). A review on internet of things for defense and public safety. Sensors, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/s16101644"},{"key":"ref_51","unstructured":"B&W Pantex (2011). Advanced Inventory and Materials Management at Pantex, B&W Pantex. White Paper."},{"key":"ref_52","unstructured":"Rappaport, T.S. (2002). Wireless Communications: Principles and Practice, Prentice Hall. [2nd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Grewal, M.H., and Andrews, A.P. (2008). Kalman Filtering: Theory and Practice using Matlab, John Wiley & Sons. [3rd ed.].","DOI":"10.1002\/9780470377819"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bulten, W., Rossum, A.C.V., and Haselager, W.F.G. (2016, January 4\u20138). Human SLAM, indoor localisation of devices and users. Proceedings of the IEEE First International Conference on Internet-of-Things Design and Implementation, Berlin, Germany.","DOI":"10.1109\/IoTDI.2015.19"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Clerckx, B., and Oestges, C. (2013). MIMO Wireless Networks: Channels, Techniques and Standards for Multi-Antenna, Multi-User and Multi-Cell Systems, Academic Press. [2nd ed.].","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-385055-3.00012-2"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fern\u00e1ndez, T.M., Rodas, J., Escudero, C.J., and Iglesia, D.I. (2007, January 16\u201319). Bluetooth sensor network positioning system with dynamic calibration. Proceedings of the 4th IEEE International Symposium on Wireless Communication Systems, Trondheim, Norway.","DOI":"10.1109\/ISWCS.2007.4392299"},{"key":"ref_57","unstructured":"Speedway Revolution R420 from Impinj. Available online: http:\/\/www.impinj.com\/products\/readers\/speedway-revolution."},{"key":"ref_58","unstructured":"A6-UHFLongRange. Available online: http:\/\/www.nextpoints.com\/es\/productos-rfid\/item\/196-rugged-pda-a6-rfid-uhf.html."},{"key":"ref_59","unstructured":"Omni-ID Products. Available online: https:\/\/www.omni-id.com\/industrial-rfid-tags."},{"key":"ref_60","unstructured":"NPR ActiveTrack-2 New Edition. Available online: http:\/\/www.nextpoints.com\/es\/productos-rfid\/item\/187-npr-active-track-2-new-edition.html."},{"key":"ref_61","unstructured":"Active RuggedTag-175S. Available online: http:\/\/www.nextpoints.com\/es\/productos-rfid\/item\/319-tag-rfid-activo-active-rugged-tag-175s.html."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mascharka, D., and Manley, E. (2016, January 8\u201311). LIPS: Learning Based Indoor Positioning System using mobile phone-based sensors. Proceedings of the 13th IEEE Annual Consumer Communications & Networking Conference (CCNC), Las Vegas, NV, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/CCNC.2016.7444919"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"405","DOI":"10.1007\/s11276-008-0140-3","article-title":"Zero-configuration indoor localization over IEEE 802.11 wireless infrastructure","volume":"16","author":"Lim","year":"2010","journal-title":"Wirel. Netw."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Park, J.-G., Charrow, B., Curtis, D., Battat, J., Minkov, E., Hicks, J., Teller, S., and Ledlie, J. (2010, January 15\u201318). Growing an organic indoor location system. Proceedings of the 8th International Conference on Mobile Systems, Applications, and Services, San Francisco, CA, USA.","DOI":"10.1145\/1814433.1814461"},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chintalapudi, K., Padmanabha Iyer, A., and Padmanabhan, V.N. (2010, January 20\u201324). Indoor localization without the pain. Proceedings of the Sixteenth Annual International Conference on Mobile Computing and Networking, Chicago, IL, USA.","DOI":"10.1145\/1859995.1860016"},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Goswami, A., Ortiz, L.E., and Das, S.R. (2011, January 6\u20139). WiGEM: A learning-based approach for indoor localization. Proceedings of the Seventh Conference on emerging Networking Experiments and Technologies ACM CoNEXT, Tokyo, Japan.","DOI":"10.1145\/2079296.2079299"},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"839","DOI":"10.1109\/TPDS.2012.179","article-title":"WILL: Wireless indoor localization without site survey","volume":"24","author":"Wu","year":"2013","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Parallel Distrib. Syst."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, H., Sen, S., Elgohary, A., Farid, M., Youssef, M., and Choudhury, R.R. (2012, January 22\u201326). No need to war-drive: Unsupervised indoor localization. Proceedings of the ACM 18th Annual International Conference on Mobile Computing and Networking (MobiCom 2012), Istambul, Turkey.","DOI":"10.1145\/2307636.2307655"},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rai, A., Chintalapudi, K.K., Padmanabhan, V.N., and Sen, R. (2012, January 22\u201326). Zee: Zero-effort crowdsourcing for indoor localization. Proceedings of the ACM 18th Annual International Conference on Mobile Computing and Networking (MobiCom 2012), Istambul, Turkey.","DOI":"10.1145\/2348543.2348580"},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yang, Z., Wu, C., and Liu, Y. (2012, January 22\u201326). Locating in fingerprint space: Wireless indoor localization with little human intervention. Proceedings of the ACM 18th Annual International Conference on Mobile Computing and Networking (MobiCom 2012), Istambul, Turkey.","DOI":"10.1145\/2348543.2348578"},{"key":"ref_71","unstructured":"Shen, G., Chen, Z., Zhang, P., Moscibroda, T., and Zhang, Y. (2013, January 2\u20135). Walkie-Markie: Indoor pathway mapping made easy. Proceedings of the 10th USENIX Conference on Networked Systems Design and Implementation, Berkeley, CA, USA."},{"key":"ref_72","unstructured":"Bahl, P., and Padmanabhan, V.N. (2000, January 26\u201330). RADAR: An in-building RF-based user location and tracking system. Proceedings of the Nineteenth Annual Joint Conference of the IEEE Computer and Communications Societies (INFOCOM 2000), Piscataway, NJ, USA."},{"key":"ref_73","unstructured":"Youssef, M., and Agrawala, A. (2004, January 7\u201311). Handling samples correlation in the horus system. Proceedings of the Twenty-Third Annual Joint Conference of the IEEE Computer and Communications Societies (INFOCOM 2004), Hong Kong, China."},{"key":"ref_74","unstructured":"AiRISTA. Available online: https:\/\/www.airistaflow.com\/hardware\/."},{"key":"ref_75","unstructured":"IZat. Available online: https:\/\/www.qualcomm.com\/products\/izat."},{"key":"ref_76","unstructured":"Ubisense. Available online: https:\/\/ubisense.net\/en."},{"key":"ref_77","unstructured":"Dart system. Available online: https:\/\/www.zebra.com\/us\/en\/solutions\/location-solutions\/enabling-technologies\/dart-uwb.html."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2385","DOI":"10.1109\/TIM.2009.2016378","article-title":"Performance evaluation of 3D-LOCUS advanced acoustic LPS","volume":"58","author":"Prieto","year":"2009","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Instrum. Meas."},{"key":"ref_79","unstructured":"Elpas (Gdsystems). Available online: http:\/\/www.gdsystems.com\/staff-attack-alarms\/elpas\/."},{"key":"ref_80","unstructured":"Hightower, J., Want, R., and Borriello, G. (2000). SpotON: An Indoor 3D Location Sensing Technology Based on RF Signal Strength, University of Washington. UW CSE 00-02-02 Technical Report."},{"key":"ref_81","unstructured":"Topaz Local Positioning (Tadlys). Available online: http:\/\/www.tadlys.co.il\/pages\/Productcontent.asp?iGlobalId=2."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"701","DOI":"10.1023\/B:WINE.0000044029.06344.dd","article-title":"LANDMARC: Indoor location sensing using active RFID","volume":"10","author":"Ni","year":"2004","journal-title":"Wirel. Netw."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5914","DOI":"10.1109\/TIE.2012.2230596","article-title":"Efficient object localization using sparsely distributed passive RFID Tags","volume":"60","author":"Yang","year":"2013","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Seco, F., Plagemann, C., Jim\u00e9nez, A.R., and Burgard, W. (2010, January 15\u201317). Improving RFID-based indoor positioning accuracy using Gaussian processes. Proceedings of the 2010 International Conference on Indoor Positioning and Indoor Navigation, Zurich, Switzerland.","DOI":"10.1109\/IPIN.2010.5647095"},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"189","DOI":"10.1007\/s11276-004-4755-8","article-title":"Robotics-based location sensing using wireless ethernet","volume":"11","author":"Ladd","year":"2005","journal-title":"Wirel. Netw."},{"key":"ref_86","unstructured":"Prasithsangaree, P., Krishnamurthy, P., and Chrysanthis, P. (2002, January 15\u201318). On indoor position location with wireless LANs. Proceedings of the 13th IEEE International Symposium on Personal, Indoor and Mobile Radio Communications, Lisbon, Portugal."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"443","DOI":"10.1007\/s00500-013-1067-x","article-title":"ZigBee-based intelligent indoor positioning system soft computing","volume":"18","author":"Luoh","year":"2014","journal-title":"Soft Comput."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gwon, Y., and Jain, R. (2004, January 1). Error characteristics and calibration-free techniques for wireless LAN-based location estimation. Proceedings of the Second International Workshop on Mobility Management & Wireless Access Protocols, Philadelphia, PA, USA.","DOI":"10.1145\/1023783.1023786"},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2418","DOI":"10.1109\/JSAC.2015.2430281","article-title":"Location fingerprinting with bluetooth low energy beacons","volume":"33","author":"Faragher","year":"2015","journal-title":"IEEE J. Sel. Areas Commun."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"141","DOI":"10.1007\/11551201_9","article-title":"Accurate GSM indoor localization","volume":"Volume 3660","author":"Otsason","year":"2005","journal-title":"UbiComp 2005: Ubiquitous Computing"},{"key":"ref_91","unstructured":"Optotrak Certus System. Available online: http:\/\/www.ndigital.com\/msci\/products\/optotrak-certus\/."},{"key":"ref_92","unstructured":"Aitenbichler, E., and M\u00fchlh\u00e4user, M. (2003, January 19\u201322). An IR local positioning system for smart items and devices. Proceedings of the 23rd IEEE International Conference on Distributed Computing Systems Workshops (IWSAWC03), Providence, RI, USA."},{"key":"ref_93","unstructured":"Bat System. Available online: http:\/\/www.cl.cam.ac.uk\/research\/dtg\/attarchive\/bat\/."},{"key":"ref_94","unstructured":"Priyantha, N.B. (2005). The Cricket Indoor Location System. [Ph.D. Thesis, Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT)]."},{"key":"ref_95","unstructured":"Sonitor. Available online: http:\/\/sonitor.com\/."},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"King, T., Kopf, S., Haenselmann, T., Lubberger, C., and Effelsberg, W. (2006, January 29). COMPASS: A probabilistic indoor positioning system based on 802.11 and digital compasses. Proceedings of the First ACM International Workshop on Wireless Network Testbeds, Experimental evaluation and CHaracterization (WiN-TECH), Los Angeles, CA, USA.","DOI":"10.1145\/1160987.1160995"},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"An, X., Wang, J., Prasad, R.V., and Niemegeers, I.G.M.M. (2006, January 26). OPT: Online person tracking system for context-awareness in wireless personal network. Proceedings of the 2nd International Workshop on Multi-hop Ad Hoc Networks: From Theory to Reality (REALMAN \u201906), Florence, Italy.","DOI":"10.1145\/1132983.1133008"},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Brumitt, B., Meyers, B., Krumm, J., Kern, A., and Shafer, S. (2000, January 25\u201327). Easyliving: Technologies for intelligent environments. Proceedings of the 2nd International Symposium on Handheld and Ubiquitous Computing, Bristol, UK.","DOI":"10.1007\/3-540-39959-3_2"},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2","DOI":"10.1145\/1137975.1137980","article-title":"Localization of off-the-shelf mobile devices using audible sound: Architectures, protocols and performance assessment","volume":"10","author":"Lopes","year":"2006","journal-title":"ACM SIGMOBILE Mob. Comput. Commun. Rev."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/16\/12\/2186\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T19:28:55Z","timestamp":1760210935000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/16\/12\/2186"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2016,12,20]]},"references-count":99,"journal-issue":{"issue":"12","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2016,12]]}},"alternative-id":["s16122186"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s16122186","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2016,12,20]]}}}