{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,27]],"date-time":"2026-01-27T23:29:24Z","timestamp":1769556564391,"version":"3.49.0"},"reference-count":41,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2017,2,7]],"date-time":"2017-02-07T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1486425600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>A fire detector is the most important component in a fire alarm system. Herein, we present the feasibility of a highly sensitive and rapid response gas sensor based on metal oxides as a high performance fire detector. The glancing angle deposition (GLAD) technique is used to make the highly porous structure such as nanocolumns (NCs) of various metal oxides for enhancing the gas-sensing performance. To measure the fire detection, the interface circuitry for our sensors (NiO, SnO2, WO3 and In2O3 NCs) is designed. When all the sensors with various metal-oxide NCs are exposed to fire environment, they entirely react with the target gases emitted from Poly(vinyl chlorides) (PVC) decomposed at high temperature. Before the emission of smoke from the PVC (a hot-plate temperature of 200 \u00b0C), the resistances of the metal-oxide NCs are abruptly changed and SnO2 NCs show the highest response of 2.1. However, a commercial smoke detector did not inform any warning. Interestingly, although the NiO NCs are a p-type semiconductor, they show the highest response of 577.1 after the emission of smoke from the PVC (a hot-plate temperature of 350 \u00b0C). The response time of SnO2 NCs is much faster than that of a commercial smoke detector at the hot-plate temperature of 350 \u00b0C. In addition, we investigated the selectivity of our sensors by analyzing the responses of all sensors. Our results show the high potential of a gas sensor based on metal-oxide NCs for early fire detection.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s17020303","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2017,2,7]],"date-time":"2017-02-07T12:08:18Z","timestamp":1486469298000},"page":"303","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":42,"title":["Highly Sensitive Sensors Based on Metal-Oxide Nanocolumns for Fire Detection"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"17","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2832-6347","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Kwangjae","family":"Lee","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Contents Convergence Research Center, Korea Electronics Technology Institute (KETI), 11, World cup buk-ro 54-gil, Seoul 03924, Korea"}]},{"given":"Young-Seok","family":"Shim","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for Electronic Materials, Korea Institute of Science and Technology (KIST), 5, Hwarang-ro 14-gil, Seongbuk-gu, Seoul 136-791, Korea"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1837-0814","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Young","family":"Song","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for Electronic Materials, Korea Institute of Science and Technology (KIST), 5, Hwarang-ro 14-gil, Seongbuk-gu, Seoul 136-791, Korea"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2010-6473","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Soo","family":"Han","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for Electronic Materials, Korea Institute of Science and Technology (KIST), 5, Hwarang-ro 14-gil, Seongbuk-gu, Seoul 136-791, Korea"},{"name":"KU-KIST Graduate School of Converging Science and Technology, Korea University, 145, Anam-ro, Seongbuk-gu, Seoul 136-701, Korea"}]},{"given":"Youn-Sung","family":"Lee","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Contents Convergence Research Center, Korea Electronics Technology Institute (KETI), 11, World cup buk-ro 54-gil, Seoul 03924, Korea"}]},{"given":"Chong-Yun","family":"Kang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for Electronic Materials, Korea Institute of Science and Technology (KIST), 5, Hwarang-ro 14-gil, Seongbuk-gu, Seoul 136-791, Korea"},{"name":"KU-KIST Graduate School of Converging Science and Technology, Korea University, 145, Anam-ro, Seongbuk-gu, Seoul 136-701, Korea"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2017,2,7]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chenebert, A., Breckon, T.P., and Gaszczak, A. (2011, January 11\u201314). A Non-temporal Texture Driven Approach to Real-time Fire Detection. Proceedings of the IEEE International Conference on Image Processing, Brussels, Belgium.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICIP.2011.6115796"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"507","DOI":"10.1016\/j.firesaf.2007.01.006","article-title":"Fire detection using smoke and gas sensors","volume":"42","author":"Chen","year":"2007","journal-title":"Fire Saf. J."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"145","DOI":"10.1136\/ip.5.2.145","article-title":"House fire injury prevention update. Part I. A review of risk factors for fatal and non-fatal house fire injury","volume":"5","author":"Warda","year":"1999","journal-title":"Injury Prev."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bowes, P.C. (1975). Casualties Attributed to Toxic Gas and Smoke at Fires a Survey of Statistics, Fire Research Station.","DOI":"10.1177\/002580247601600206"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"383","DOI":"10.1016\/S0141-3910(99)00127-5","article-title":"Fire hazards and some common polymers","volume":"67","author":"Irvine","year":"2000","journal-title":"Polym. Degrad. Stab."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"131","DOI":"10.1002\/fam.810110303","article-title":"Toxicity of the Pyrolysis and Combustion Products of Poly(Vinyl Chlorides): A Literature Assessment","volume":"11","author":"Huggett","year":"1987","journal-title":"Fire Mater."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"411","DOI":"10.1002\/fam.1062","article-title":"An Alternative Method for in Vitro Fire Smoke Toxicity Sssessment of Polymers and Composites using Human Lung Cells","volume":"35","author":"Lestari","year":"2011","journal-title":"Fire Mater."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"247","DOI":"10.1016\/S0360-1285(03)00027-3","article-title":"Material flammability, Combustion, Toxicity and Fire Hazard in Transportation","volume":"29","author":"Wichman","year":"2003","journal-title":"Prog. Energy Combust. Sci."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"338","DOI":"10.1021\/ef0101053","article-title":"Study of the low temperature pyrolysis of PVC","volume":"16","author":"Ma","year":"2002","journal-title":"Energy Fuels"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"685","DOI":"10.1155\/2009\/753835","article-title":"Determination of HCl and VOC Emission from Thermal Degradation of PVC in the Absence and Presence of Copper, Copper (II) Oxide and Copper (II) Chloride","volume":"6","author":"Jafari","year":"2009","journal-title":"E-J. Chem."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"606","DOI":"10.1071\/WF08121","article-title":"Volatile and semi-volatile organic compounds in smoke exposure of firefighters during prescribed burning in the Mediterranean region","volume":"19","author":"Barboni","year":"2010","journal-title":"Int. J. Wildl. Fire"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"184","DOI":"10.1016\/j.proche.2009.07.046","article-title":"Research of the interaction mechanism between HCl and semiconductor metal oxides","volume":"1","author":"Tsyrkina","year":"2009","journal-title":"Procedia Chem."},{"key":"ref_13","unstructured":"Grosshandler, W.L. (1995). A Review of Measurements and Candidate Signatures for Early Fire Detection."},{"key":"ref_14","unstructured":"Harms, M., Goschnick, J., and Young, R.C. (2001, January 25\u201328). Early Detectiion and Distinction of Fire Gases with a Gas Sensor Microarray. Proceedings of the 12th International Conference on Automatic Fire Detection, Gaithersburg, MD, USA."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2545","DOI":"10.1134\/S1070363208120347","article-title":"Metal oxide semiconductor sensors for determination of reactive gas impurities in air","volume":"78","author":"Obvintseva","year":"2009","journal-title":"Russ. J. Gen. Chem."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1013","DOI":"10.1016\/0167-2738(96)00243-3","article-title":"Development and testing of HCl gas sensor for flue gas monitoring","volume":"86\u201388","author":"Ahmed","year":"1996","journal-title":"Solid State Ion."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2006.09.047","article-title":"Metal oxide-based gas sensor research: How to?","volume":"121","author":"Barsan","year":"2007","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators B Chem."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1155\/2009\/875704","article-title":"Receptor Function and Response of Semiconductor Gas Sensor","volume":"2009","author":"Yamazoe","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Sens."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"143","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1014405811371","article-title":"Conduction Model of Metal Oxide Gas Sensors","volume":"7","author":"Barsan","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Electroceram."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17824","DOI":"10.1021\/jp405150b","article-title":"Highly Ordered TiO2 Nanotubes on Patterned Substrates: Synthesis-in-Place for Ultrasensitive Chemiresistors","volume":"117","author":"Kim","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Phys. Chem. C"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"639","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2012.05.047","article-title":"The gas sensing properties at room temperature of TiO2 nanotubes by anodization","volume":"171\u2013172","author":"Perillo","year":"2012","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators B Chem."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10834","DOI":"10.1166\/jnn.2011.4042","article-title":"V2O5\/polypyrrole Core-shell Nanotubes for Gas Sensor","volume":"11","author":"Jin","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Nanosci. Nanotechnol."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17939","DOI":"10.1039\/C5TA03293H","article-title":"Vertically ordered SnO2 nanobamboos for substantially improved detection of volatile reducing gases","volume":"3","author":"Jeon","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Mater. Chem. A"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4508","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.nanolett.6b01713","article-title":"High-Resolution p-Type Metal Oxide Semiconductor Nanowire Array as an Ultrasensitive Sensor for Volatile Organic Compounds","volume":"16","author":"Cho","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nano Lett."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"319","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2009.04.026","article-title":"Gas sensors using hierarchical and hollow oxide nanostructures: Overview","volume":"140","author":"Lee","year":"2009","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators B Chem."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1759","DOI":"10.1002\/adfm.201202332","article-title":"The role of hierarchical morphologies in the superior gas sensing performance of CuO-based chemiresistors","volume":"23","author":"Volanti","year":"2013","journal-title":"Adv. Funct. Mater."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10591","DOI":"10.1021\/am402456s","article-title":"Extremely sensitive and selective NO probe based on villi-like WO3 nanostructures for application to exhaled breath analyzers","volume":"5","author":"Moon","year":"2013","journal-title":"ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20969","DOI":"10.1021\/acsami.6b03256","article-title":"Chemiresistive Electronic Nose toward Detection of Biomarkers in Exhaled Breath","volume":"8","author":"Moon","year":"2016","journal-title":"ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"588","DOI":"10.1038\/srep00588","article-title":"Self-activated ultrahigh chemosensitivity of oxide thin film nanostructures for transparent sensors","volume":"2","author":"Moon","year":"2012","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1317","DOI":"10.1116\/1.2764082","article-title":"Glancing angle deposition: Fabrication, properties, and applications of micro- and nanostructured thin films","volume":"25","author":"Hawkeye","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Vac. Sci. Technol. A"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1460","DOI":"10.1116\/1.580562","article-title":"Sculptured thin films and glancing angle deposition: Growth mechanics and applications","volume":"15","author":"Robbie","year":"1997","journal-title":"J. Vac. Sci. Technol. A Vac. Surf. Film"},{"key":"ref_32","first-page":"1115","article-title":"Advanced techniques for glancing angle deposition","volume":"16","author":"Robbie","year":"1998","journal-title":"J. Vac. Sci. Technol. B Microelectron. Nanom. Struct."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16404","DOI":"10.3390\/s121216404","article-title":"Detecting Changes of a Distant Gas Source with an Array of MOX Gas Sensors","volume":"12","author":"Pashami","year":"2012","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2967","DOI":"10.3390\/s130302967","article-title":"Gas Sensors Characterization and Multilayer Perceptron (MLP) Hardware Implementation for Gas Identification Using a Field Programmable Gate Array (FPGA)","volume":"13","author":"Benrekia","year":"2013","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"27804","DOI":"10.3390\/s151127804","article-title":"Electronic Nose Feature Extraction Methods: A Review","volume":"15","author":"Yan","year":"2015","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"335","DOI":"10.1016\/0039-6028(79)90411-4","article-title":"Interactions of tin oxide surface with O2, H2O and H2","volume":"86","author":"Yamazoe","year":"1979","journal-title":"Surf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2818","DOI":"10.1002\/adma.200602975","article-title":"High-performance, flexible hydrogen sensors that use carbon nanotubes decorated with palladium nanoparticles","volume":"19","author":"Sun","year":"2007","journal-title":"Adv. Mater."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"184","DOI":"10.5369\/JSST.2016.25.3.184","article-title":"Metal Oxide Nanocolumns for Extremely Sensitive Gas Sensors","volume":"25","author":"Song","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Sens. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2088","DOI":"10.3390\/s100302088","article-title":"Metal oxide gas sensors: Sensitivity and influencing factors","volume":"10","author":"Wang","year":"2010","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4456","DOI":"10.1002\/adfm.201101154","article-title":"The role of NiO doping in reducing the impact of humidity on the performance of SnO2-based gas sensors: Synthesis strategies, and phenomenological and spectroscopic studies","volume":"21","author":"Kim","year":"2011","journal-title":"Adv. Funct. Mater."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"347","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2010.10.046","article-title":"Influence of humidity on CO sensing with p-type CuO thick film gas sensors","volume":"153","author":"Simion","year":"2011","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators B Chem."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/17\/2\/303\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T18:27:37Z","timestamp":1760207257000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/17\/2\/303"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2017,2,7]]},"references-count":41,"journal-issue":{"issue":"2","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2017,2]]}},"alternative-id":["s17020303"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s17020303","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2017,2,7]]}}}