{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,6]],"date-time":"2025-11-06T15:57:35Z","timestamp":1762444655684,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":25,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2017,2,9]],"date-time":"2017-02-09T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1486598400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100002380","name":"Hanyang University","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["HY-2015-G"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["HY-2015-G"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100002380","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"National Research Foundation of Korea (NRF)","award":["NRF-2016R1E1A2A01939769"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["NRF-2016R1E1A2A01939769"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Existing smartphone-based solutions to prevent distracted driving suffer from inadequate system designs that only recognize simple and clean vehicle-boarding actions, thereby failing to meet the required level of accuracy in real-life environments. In this paper, exploiting unique sensory features consistently monitored from a broad range of complicated vehicle-boarding actions, we propose a reliable and accurate system based on fuzzy inference to classify the sides of vehicle entrancebyleveragingbuilt-insmartphonesensorsonly. Theresultsofourcomprehensiveevaluation on three vehicle types with four participants demonstrate that the proposed system achieves 91.1%\u223c94.0% accuracy, outperforming other methods by 26.9%\u223c38.4% and maintains at least 87.8 %accuracy regardless of smartphone positions and vehicle types.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s17020333","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2017,2,10]],"date-time":"2017-02-10T05:27:09Z","timestamp":1486704429000},"page":"333","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":10,"title":["Reliable Identi\ufb01cation of Vehicle-Boarding Actions Based on Fuzzy Inference Syste"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"17","author":[{"given":"DaeHan","family":"Ahn","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Information and Communication Engineering, Daegu Gyeongbuk Institute of Science and Technology (DGIST), 333 Techno jungang-daero, Hyeonpung-myeon, Dalseong-gun, Daegu 42988, Korea"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Homin","family":"Park","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Research Institute of Engineering & Technology, Hanyang University, 55 Hanyangdaehak-ro, Ansan, Gyeonggi-do 15588, Korea"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Seokhyun","family":"Hwang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Interdisciplinary Engineering System, Hanyang University, 55 Hanyangdaehak-ro, Ansan, Gyeonggi-do 15588, Korea"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7924-1776","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Taejoon","family":"Park","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Robotics Engineering, Hanyang University, 55 Hanyangdaehak-ro, Ansan, Gyeonggi-do 15588, Korea"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2017,2,9]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Distracted Driving. Available online: http:\/\/www.ghsa.org\/issues\/distracted-driving."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"Annual Estimate of Cell Phone Crashes 2013. Available online: http:\/\/www.nsc.org\/DistractedDrivingDocuments\/CPK\/Attributable-Risk-Summary.pdf."},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"Distracted Driving 2013, Available online: https:\/\/crashstats.nhtsa.dot.gov\/Api\/Public\/ViewPublication\/811719."},{"key":"ref_4","unstructured":"Box, S. New Data from VTTI Provides Insight into Cell Phone Use and Driving Distraction. Available online: https:\/\/www.arrivealive.co.za\/documents\/7-22-09-vtti-press_release_cell_phones_and_driver_distraction.pdf."},{"key":"ref_5","unstructured":"Distracted Driving Campaign, Available online: https:\/\/www.transportation.gov\/mission\/performance\/distracted-driving-campaign."},{"key":"ref_6","unstructured":"Distracted Driving. Available online: http:\/\/www.iihs.org\/iihs\/topics\/laws\/cellphonelaws."},{"key":"ref_7","unstructured":"Police Losing Battle to Get Drivers to Put Down Their Phones, Available online: http:\/\/wtop.com\/government\/2016\/09\/police-losing-battle-to-get-drivers-to-put-down-their-phones\/slide\/1\/."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1965","DOI":"10.1109\/TMC.2015.2483501","article-title":"Determining Driver Phone Use by Exploiting Smartphone Integrated Sensors","volume":"15","author":"Wang","year":"2016","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Mob. Comput."},{"key":"ref_9","unstructured":"Chu, H., Raman, V., Shen, J., Kansal, A., Bahl, V., and Choudhury, R.R. (2014, January 6\u201310). I am a smartphone and I know my user is driving. Proceedings of the Sixth International Conference on Communication Systems and Networks (COMSNETS), Bangalore, India."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, Y., Yang, J., Liu, H., Chen, Y., Gruteser, M., and Martin, R.P. (2013, January 25\u201328). Sensing Vehicle Dynamics for Determining Driver Phone Use. Proceedings of the 11th Annual International Conference on Mobile Systems, Applications, and Services (MobiSys\u201913), Taipei, Taiwan.","DOI":"10.1145\/2462456.2464447"},{"key":"ref_11","unstructured":"Bo, C., Jian, X., and Li, X.Y. TEXIVE: Detecting Drivers Using Personal Smart Phones by Leveraging Inertial Sensors. Available online: https:\/\/arxiv.org\/abs\/1307.1756."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"665","DOI":"10.1109\/21.256541","article-title":"ANFIS: Adaptive-Network-based Fuzzy Inference System","volume":"23","author":"Jang","year":"1993","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Syst. Man Cybern. Syst."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"338","DOI":"10.1016\/S0019-9958(65)90241-X","article-title":"Fuzzy sets","volume":"8","author":"Zadeh","year":"1965","journal-title":"Inf. Control"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Madgwick, S.O., Harrison, A.J., and Vaidyanathan, R. (July, January 27). Estimation of IMU and MARG Orientation Using a Gradient Descent Algorithm. Proceedings of the 2011 IEEE International Conference on Rehabilitation Robotics (ICORR), Zurich, Switzerland.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICORR.2011.5975346"},{"key":"ref_15","unstructured":"Tesla Motors Co.. Available online: https:\/\/www.tesla.com\/modelx."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Park, H., Ahn, D., Won, M., Son, S.H., and Park, T. (2014, January 7\u201311). Poster: Are You Driving?: Non-intrusive Driver Detection Using Built-in Smartphone Sensors. Proceedings of the 20th Annual International Conference on Mobile Computing and Networking (MobiCom), Maui, HI, USA.","DOI":"10.1145\/2639108.2642896"},{"key":"ref_17","unstructured":"International Standardization Organization (ISO), Electomagnetic Capability. Available online: https:\/\/www.iso.org\/obp\/ui\/#iso:std:iso:16750:-2:ed-4:v1:en."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Geiger, W., Bartholomeyczik, J., Breng, U., Gutmann, W., Hafen, M., Handrich, E., Huber, M., Jackle, A., Kempfer, U., and Kopmann, H. (2008, January 5\u20138). MEMS IMU for AHRS applications. Proceedings of the IEEE\/ION Position, Location and Navigation Symposium, Monterey, CA, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/PLANS.2008.4569973"},{"key":"ref_19","unstructured":"Khan, M. Approximation of Data Using Cubic Bezier Curve Least Square Fitting. Available online: http:\/\/hipp.certec.lth.se\/trac\/raw-attachment\/wiki\/BezierPaths\/cubicbezierleastsquarefit.pdf."},{"key":"ref_20","unstructured":"Bouchon-Meunier, B., Dotoli, D., and Maione, B. (1996, January 19\u201330). On the Choice of Membership Functions in a Mamdani-type Fuzzy Controller. Proceedings of the 1st Online Workshop Soft Computing, Nagoya, Japan."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"116","DOI":"10.1109\/TSMC.1985.6313399","article-title":"Fuzzy Identification of Systems and Its Applications to Modeling and Control","volume":"15","author":"Takagi","year":"1985","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Syst. Man Cybern. Syst."},{"key":"ref_22","unstructured":"Samsung Electronics Co.. Available online: http:\/\/www.samsung.com\/us\/mobile\/phones\/galaxy-s\/."},{"key":"ref_23","unstructured":"Hyundai Motors Co.. Available online: http:\/\/www.hyundai.com\/."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"23","DOI":"10.1016\/S0167-5877(00)00115-X","article-title":"Principles and Practical Application of the Receiver-Operating Characteristic Analysis for Diagnostic Tests","volume":"45","author":"Greiner","year":"2000","journal-title":"Prev. Vet. Med."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"226","DOI":"10.1109\/TLT.2011.36","article-title":"Modeling and Simulation of an Adaptive Neuro-Fuzzy Inference System (ANFIS) for Mobile Learning","volume":"5","author":"Shen","year":"2012","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Learn. Technol."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/17\/2\/333\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T18:27:51Z","timestamp":1760207271000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/17\/2\/333"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2017,2,9]]},"references-count":25,"journal-issue":{"issue":"2","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2017,2]]}},"alternative-id":["s17020333"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s17020333","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"1424-8220"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2017,2,9]]}}}