{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,16]],"date-time":"2026-03-16T10:06:55Z","timestamp":1773655615503,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":30,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2017,4,2]],"date-time":"2017-04-02T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1491091200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Vehicle speed-over-ground (SoG) radar offers significant advantages over conventional speed measurement systems. Radar sensors enable contactless speed measurement, which is free from wheel slip. One of the key issues in SoG radar is the development of the Doppler shift estimation algorithm. In this paper, we compared two algorithms to estimate a mean Doppler frequency accurately. The first is the center-of-mass algorithm, which based on spectrum center-of-mass estimation with a bandwidth-limiting technique. The second is the cross-correlation algorithm, which is based on a cross-correlation technique by cross-correlating Doppler spectrum with a theoretical Gaussian curve. Analysis shows that both algorithms are computationally efficient and suitable for real-time SoG systems. Our extensive simulated and experimental results show both methods achieved low estimation error between 0.5% and 1.5% for flat road conditions. In terms of reliability, the cross-correlation method shows good performance under low Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR) while the center-of-mass method failed in this condition.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s17040751","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2017,4,3]],"date-time":"2017-04-03T13:32:30Z","timestamp":1491226350000},"page":"751","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":13,"title":["Comparison of Adaptive Spectral Estimation for Vehicle Speed Measurement with Radar Sensors"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"17","author":[{"given":"Khairul Khaizi Mohd","family":"Shariff","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Microwave Integrated Systems Laboratory, University of Birmingham, Birmingham B15 2TT, UK"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Edward","family":"Hoare","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Microwave Integrated Systems Laboratory, University of Birmingham, Birmingham B15 2TT, UK"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Liam","family":"Daniel","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Microwave Integrated Systems Laboratory, University of Birmingham, Birmingham B15 2TT, UK"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Michail","family":"Antoniou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Microwave Integrated Systems Laboratory, University of Birmingham, Birmingham B15 2TT, UK"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Mikhail","family":"Cherniakov","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Microwave Integrated Systems Laboratory, University of Birmingham, Birmingham B15 2TT, UK"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2017,4,2]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tanelli, M., Savaresi, S.M., and Cantoni, C. (2006, January 4\u20136). Longitudinal vehicle speed estimation for traction and braking control systems. Proceedings of the 2006 IEEE Conference on Computer Aided Control System Design, 2006 IEEE International Conference on Control Applications, 2006 IEEE International Symposium on Intelligent Control, Munich, Germany.","DOI":"10.1109\/CACSD-CCA-ISIC.2006.4777080"},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"Shanshan, M. (2013, January 7\u20139). A vehicle laser Doppler velocimeter configured with three transmitting beams. Proceedings of the 2013 International Conference on Optoelectronics and Microelectronics (ICOM), Harbin, China."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Xu, C., Daniel, L., Hoare, E., Sizov, V., and Cherniakov, M. (2014, January 8\u201310). Comparison of speed over ground estimation using acoustic and radar Doppler sensors. Proceedings of the 11th European Radar Conference (EuRAD), Rome, Italy.","DOI":"10.1109\/EuRAD.2014.6991239"},{"key":"ref_4","first-page":"7","article-title":"Ultrasonic Doppler Sensor for Measuring Vehicle Speed in Forward and Reverse Motions Including Low Speed Motions","volume":"3","author":"Imou","year":"2001","journal-title":"Agric. Eng. Int. CIGR J."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"O\u2019Kane, T., and Ringwood, J.V. (2013, January 20\u201321). Vehicle speed estimation using GPS\/RISS (Reduced Inertial Sensor System). Proceedings of the 24th IET Irish Signals and Systems Conference (ISSC 2013), Letterkenny, Ireland.","DOI":"10.1049\/ic.2013.0046"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"205","DOI":"10.5194\/ars-3-205-2005","article-title":"Automotive Radar and Lidar Systems for Next Generation Driver Assistance Functions","volume":"3","author":"Rasshofer","year":"2005","journal-title":"Adv. Radio Sci."},{"key":"ref_7","unstructured":"Borenstein, J., and Koren, Y. (1992, January 12\u201314). Noise rejection for ultrasonic sensors in mobile robot applications. Proceedings of the 1992 IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation, Nice, France."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1900","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2008.2006452","article-title":"New Automotive Sensors\u2014A Review","volume":"8","author":"Fleming","year":"2008","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"296","DOI":"10.1109\/7361.983469","article-title":"Overview of automotive sensors","volume":"1","author":"Fleming","year":"2001","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_10","unstructured":"Dixit, R. (1996, January 17\u201321). Microwave and millimeter-wave applications in automotive electronics. Proceedings of the IEEE MTT-S International Microwave Symposium Digest, San Franscisco, CA, USA."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1639","DOI":"10.1109\/22.392935","article-title":"Commercial applications of millimeterwaves: History, present status, and future trends","volume":"43","author":"Meinel","year":"1995","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Microw. Theory Tech."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"674","DOI":"10.1109\/22.989952","article-title":"Integrated automotive sensors","volume":"50","author":"Russell","year":"2002","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Microw. Theory Tech."},{"key":"ref_13","unstructured":"Skolnik, M.I. (2008). Radar Handbook, McGraw-Hill Education. [3rd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2105","DOI":"10.1109\/TMTT.2004.834185","article-title":"Ultra-wideband radar sensors for short-range vehicular applications","volume":"52","author":"Gresham","year":"2004","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Microw. Theory Tech."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"812","DOI":"10.1109\/19.234490","article-title":"A high accuracy microwave ranging system for industrial applications","volume":"42","author":"Woods","year":"1993","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Instrum. Meas."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1745","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2008.2003304","article-title":"Software-Defined Six-Port Radar Technique for Precision Range Measurements","volume":"8","author":"Zhang","year":"2008","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"88","DOI":"10.1017\/S0373463300012522","article-title":"Microwave Front End for True Ground Speed Measurements","volume":"48","author":"Kehrbeck","year":"1995","journal-title":"J. Navig."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zeng, Y., Xu, J., and Peng, D. (2010, January 7\u20139). Radar velocity-measuring system design and computation algorithm based on ARM processor. Proceedings of the 2010 8th World Congress on Intelligent Control and Automation (WCICA), Jinan, China.","DOI":"10.1061\/41123(383)77"},{"key":"ref_19","unstructured":"Kleinhempel, W. (1993, January 12\u201315). Automobile Doppler speedometer. Proceedings of the IEEE-IEE Vehicle Navigation and Information Systems Conference, Ottawa, ON, Canada."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hyltin, T.M., Fuchser, T.D., Tyson, H.B., and Regueiro, W.R. (1973). Vehicular Radar Speedometer, SAE Technical Paper.","DOI":"10.4271\/730125"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103","DOI":"10.1109\/TANE3.1957.4201534","article-title":"The Nature of Doppler Velocity Measurement","volume":"4","author":"Berger","year":"1957","journal-title":"IRE Trans. Aeronaut. Navig. Electron."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Egawa, A. (1982). A Microwave Doppler Radar Velocity Meter for Construction Machinery, SAE Technical Paper.","DOI":"10.4271\/821083"},{"key":"ref_23","unstructured":"Hines, M.E., and Zelubowski, S.A. (1992, January 10\u201313). Conditions affecting the accuracy of speed measurements by low power MM-wave CW Doppler radar. Proceedings of the IEEE 42nd Vehicular Technology Conference, Denver, CO, USA."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"498","DOI":"10.1109\/10.2124","article-title":"Comparison of zero crossing counter to FFT spectrum of ultrasound Doppler","volume":"35","author":"Cote","year":"1988","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shmaliy, Y. (2006). Continuous-Time Signals, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4020-6272-8"},{"key":"ref_26","unstructured":"Dybedal, J. (2013). Doppler Radar Speed Measurement Based on a 24 GHz Radar Sensor, Institutt for Elektronikk og Telekommunikasjon."},{"key":"ref_27","unstructured":"Beasley, P.D.L. (1993). Doppler Radar Speed Sensor. (US5,204,682 A), U.S. Patent."},{"key":"ref_28","unstructured":"H\u00e4kli, J., S\u00e4ily, J., Koivisto, P., Huhtinen, I., Dufva, T., Rautiainen, A., and Nummila, K. (2013, January 19\u201321). Road surface condition detection using 24 GHz automotive radar technology. Proceedings of the 2013 14th International Radar Symposium (IRS), Dresden, Germany."},{"key":"ref_29","unstructured":"Reed, J. (1963). Doppler Navigator Land-Water Corrector. (US3,077,594 A), U.S. Patent."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nagasaku, T., Kogo, K., Shinoda, H., Kondoh, H., Muto, Y., Yamamoto, A., and Yoshikawa, T. (2008, January 12\u201315). 77GHz low-cost single-chip radar sensor for automotive ground speed detection. Proceedings of the 2008 IEEE Compound Semiconductor Integrated Circuits Symposium, Monterey, CA, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/CSICS.2008.25"}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/17\/4\/751\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T18:31:52Z","timestamp":1760207512000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/17\/4\/751"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2017,4,2]]},"references-count":30,"journal-issue":{"issue":"4","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2017,4]]}},"alternative-id":["s17040751"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s17040751","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2017,4,2]]}}}