{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,14]],"date-time":"2025-10-14T07:05:31Z","timestamp":1760425531293,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":13,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2017,4,12]],"date-time":"2017-04-12T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1491955200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Research grant from Institute of Crustal Dynamics, China Earthquake Administration","award":["ZDJ2015-08"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["ZDJ2015-08"]}]},{"name":"National Nature Science Foundation of China","award":["50908215"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["50908215"]}]},{"name":"National Science Foundation of the United States","award":["1442623"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["1442623"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Observations of surface deformation are essential for understanding a wide range of geophysical problems, including earthquakes, volcanoes, landslides, and glaciers. Current geodetic technologies, such as global positioning system (GPS), interferometric synthetic aperture radar (InSAR), borehole and laser strainmeters, are costly and limited in their temporal or spatial resolutions. Here we present a new type of strainmeters based on the coaxial cable Bragg grating (CCBG) sensing technology that provides cost-effective strain measurements. Two CCBGs are introduced into the geodetic strainmeter: one serves as a sensor to measure the strain applied on it, and the other acts as a reference to detect environmental noises. By integrating the sensor and reference signals in a mixer, the environmental noises are minimized and a lower mixed frequency is obtained. The lower mixed frequency allows for measurements to be taken with a portable spectrum analyzer, rather than an expensive spectrum analyzer or a vector network analyzer (VNA). Analysis of laboratory experiments shows that the strain can be measured by the CCBG sensor, and the portable spectrum analyzer can make measurements with the accuracy similar to the expensive spectrum analyzer, whose relative error to the spectrum analyzer R3272 is less than \u00b10.4%. The outputs of the geodetic strainmeter show a linear relationship with the strains that the CCBG sensor experienced. The measured sensitivity of the geodetic strainmeter is about \u22120.082 kHz\/\u03bc\u03b5; it can cover a large dynamic measuring range up to 2%, and its nonlinear errors can be less than 5.3%.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s17040842","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2017,4,12]],"date-time":"2017-04-12T10:15:06Z","timestamp":1491992106000},"page":"842","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":12,"title":["A Cost-Effective Geodetic Strainmeter Based on Dual Coaxial Cable Bragg Gratings"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"17","author":[{"given":"Jihua","family":"Fu","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Crustal Dynamics, Institute of Crustal Dynamics, China Earthquake Administration; Beijing 100085, China"}]},{"given":"Xu","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Crustal Dynamics, Institute of Crustal Dynamics, China Earthquake Administration; Beijing 100085, China"}]},{"given":"Tao","family":"Wei","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Engineering Department, University of Rhode Island, Kingston, RI 02881, USA"}]},{"given":"Meng","family":"Wei","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Graduate School of Oceanography, University of Rhode Island, Narragansett, RI 02882, USA"}]},{"given":"Yang","family":"Shen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Graduate School of Oceanography, University of Rhode Island, Narragansett, RI 02882, USA"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2017,4,12]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1421","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1206731","article-title":"The 2011 magnitude 9.0 Tohoku-Oki earthquake: Mosaicking the megathrust from seconds to centuries","volume":"332","author":"Simons","year":"2011","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1395","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1207401","article-title":"Displacement above the hypocenter of the 2011 Tohoku-Oki earthquake","volume":"332","author":"Sato","year":"2011","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"(2014, June 20). EarthScope. Available online: http:\/\/www.earthscope.org\/."},{"key":"ref_4","unstructured":"(2014, July 02). Crustal Movement Observation Network of China. (In Chinese)."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2621","DOI":"10.1007\/s11434-010-4026-2","article-title":"Near-field surface movement during the Wenchuan Ms8.0 earthquake measured by high-rate GPS","volume":"55","author":"Yin","year":"2010","journal-title":"Chin. Sci. Bull."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3515","DOI":"10.1143\/JJAP.36.3515","article-title":"Iodine-stabilized 633 nm He-Ne laser for long-baseline interferometers","volume":"36","author":"Araya","year":"1997","journal-title":"Jpn. J. Appl. Phys."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"244","DOI":"10.1016\/j.epsl.2014.08.031","article-title":"Coseismic fault zone deformation revealed with differential lidar: Examples from Japanese Mw~7 intraplate earthquakes","volume":"405","author":"Nissen","year":"2014","journal-title":"Earth Planet. Sci. Lett."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1442","DOI":"10.1109\/50.618377","article-title":"Fiber grating sensors","volume":"15","author":"Kersey","year":"1997","journal-title":"J. Lightw. Technol."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1233","DOI":"10.4028\/www.scientific.net\/AMR.47-50.1233","article-title":"Plastic optical fiber sensors for measurement of large strain in geotextile materials","volume":"47\u201350","author":"Kuang","year":"2008","journal-title":"Adv. Mater. Res."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113517","DOI":"10.1063\/1.3636406","article-title":"Coaxial cable Bragg grating","volume":"99","author":"Wei","year":"2011","journal-title":"Appl. Phys. Lett."},{"key":"ref_11","first-page":"2251","article-title":"Modeling of coaxial cable bragg grating by coupled mode theory","volume":"62","author":"Wu","year":"2014","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Huang, J., Wei, T., Lan, X.W., Fan, J., and Xiao, H. (2012). Coaxial cable bragg grating sensors for large strain measurement with high accuracy. Proc. SPIE, 8345.","DOI":"10.1117\/12.915035"},{"key":"ref_13","unstructured":"Wu, S.P. (2011). Modeling of Novel Coaxial Cable Bragg Grating Sensor by Coupled Mode Theory. [Ph.D. Thesis, Missouri University of Science and Technology]."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/17\/4\/842\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T18:32:29Z","timestamp":1760207549000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/17\/4\/842"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2017,4,12]]},"references-count":13,"journal-issue":{"issue":"4","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2017,4]]}},"alternative-id":["s17040842"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s17040842","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"1424-8220"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2017,4,12]]}}}