{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,30]],"date-time":"2026-09-30T23:23:17Z","timestamp":1790810597766,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":37,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"6","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2017,6,1]],"date-time":"2017-06-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1496275200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["41674004"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["41674004"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["41404032"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["41404032"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["41574030"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["41574030"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100012226","name":"Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["2042016kf0185"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2042016kf0185"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100012226","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100003819","name":"Natural Science Foundation of Hubei Province","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["2014CFB168"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2014CFB168"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100003819","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>In recent years, Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) has played an important role in Space Service Volume, the region enclosing the altitudes above 3000 km up to 36,000 km. As an in-flight test for the feasibility as well as for the performance of GNSS-based satellite orbit determination (OD), the Chinese experimental lunar mission Chang\u2019E-5T had been equipped with an onboard high-sensitivity GNSS receiver with GPS and GLONASS tracking capability. In this contribution, the 2-h onboard GPS data are evaluated in terms of tracking performance as well as observation quality. It is indicated that the onboard receiver can track 7\u20138 GPS satellites per epoch on average and the ratio of carrier to noise spectral density (C\/N0) values are higher than 28 dB-Hz for 90% of all the observables. The C1 code errors are generally about 4.15 m but can be better than 2 m with C\/N0 values over 36 dB-Hz. GPS-based Chang\u2019E-5T OD is performed and the Helmert variance component estimation method is investigated to determine the weights of code and carrier phase observations. The results reveal that the orbit consistency is about 20 m. OD is furthermore analyzed with GPS data screened out according to different C\/N0 thresholds. It is indicated that for the Chang\u2019E-5T, the precision of OD is dominated by the number of observed satellite. Although increased C\/N0 thresholds can improve the overall data quality, the available number of GPS observations is greatly reduced and the resulting orbit solution is poor.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s17061260","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2017,6,1]],"date-time":"2017-06-01T10:36:36Z","timestamp":1496313396000},"page":"1260","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":18,"title":["Chang\u2019E-5T Orbit Determination Using Onboard GPS Observations"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"17","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6840-6678","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Xing","family":"Su","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"GNSS Research Center, Wuhan University, 129 Luoyu Road, Wuhan 430079, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5760-5666","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Tao","family":"Geng","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"GNSS Research Center, Wuhan University, 129 Luoyu Road, Wuhan 430079, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Wenwen","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"GNSS Research Center, Wuhan University, 129 Luoyu Road, Wuhan 430079, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Qile","family":"Zhao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"GNSS Research Center, Wuhan University, 129 Luoyu Road, Wuhan 430079, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Xin","family":"Xie","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"GNSS Research Center, Wuhan University, 129 Luoyu Road, Wuhan 430079, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2017,6,1]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"322","DOI":"10.1007\/s00190-006-0073-5","article-title":"Precise orbit determination for the GRACE mission using only GPS data","volume":"80","author":"Kang","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Geod."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1638","DOI":"10.1016\/j.asr.2007.02.053","article-title":"Precise orbit determination for the GOCE satellite using GPS","volume":"39","author":"Bock","year":"2007","journal-title":"Adv. Space Res."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"187","DOI":"10.1007\/s10291-007-0080-x","article-title":"Precision real-time navigation of LEO satellites using global positioning system measurements","volume":"12","author":"Montenbruck","year":"2007","journal-title":"GPS Solut."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"199","DOI":"10.1007\/s10291-012-0271-y","article-title":"(Near-)real-time orbit determination for GNSS radio occultation processing","volume":"17","author":"Montenbruck","year":"2012","journal-title":"GPS Solut."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1612","DOI":"10.1016\/j.asr.2007.03.012","article-title":"Precise orbit determination for GRACE using undifferenced or doubly differenced GPS data","volume":"39","author":"Hugentobler","year":"2007","journal-title":"Adv. Space Res."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1047","DOI":"10.1007\/s00190-014-0742-8","article-title":"GOCE: Precise orbit determination for the entire mission","volume":"88","author":"Bock","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Geod."},{"key":"ref_7","unstructured":"Bauer, F.H., Moreau, M.C., Dahle-Melsaether, M.E., Petrofski, W.P., and Stanton, B.J. (2001, January 11\u201314). The GPS Space Service Volume. Proceedings of the 14th International Technical Meeting of the Satellite Division of The Institute of Navigation (ION GPS 2001), Salt Lake City, UT, USA."},{"key":"ref_8","unstructured":"Bauer, F.H. (2015, January 1\u20136). GNSS Space Service Volume & Space User Data Update. Proceedings of the International Committee for GNSS 10th Meeting, Boulder, CO, USA."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Miller, J.J., Bauer, F.H., Oria, A.J., Pace, S., and Parker, J.J.K. (2016, January 12\u201316). Achieving GNSS Compatibility and Interoperability to Support Space Users. Proceedings of the 29th International Technical Meeting of The Satellite Division of the Institute of Navigation (ION GNSS+ 2016), Portland, OR, USA.","DOI":"10.33012\/2016.14557"},{"key":"ref_10","unstructured":"Czopek, F.M. (1993, January 22\u201324). Description and Performance of the GPS Block I and II L-Band Antenna and Link Budget. Proceedings of the 6th International Technical Meeting of the Satellite Division of The Institute of Navigation (ION GPS 1993), Salt Lake City, UT, USA."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Geng, T., Su, X., and Zhao, Q. (2012, January 15\u201319). MEO and HEO Satellites Orbit Determination Based on GNSS Onboard Receiver. Proceedings of the China Satellite Navigation Conference (CSNC) 2012, GuangZhou, China.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-642-29175-3_20"},{"key":"ref_12","unstructured":"Unwin, M., Steenwijk, R.D.V.V., Blunt, P., Hashida, Y., Kowaltschek, S., and Price, S.R. (2013, January 16\u201320). Navigating Above the GPS Constellation-Preliminary Results from the SGR-GEO on GIOVE-A. Proceedings of the 26th International Technical Meeting of The Satellite Division of the Institute of Navigation (ION GNSS+ 2013), Nashville, TN, USA."},{"key":"ref_13","unstructured":"Ramakrishnan, S., Reid, T., and Enge, P. (2013, January 16\u201320). Leveraging the L1 Composite Signal to enable autonomous navigation at GEO and beyond. Proceedings of the 26th International Technical Meeting of The Satellite Division of the Institute of Navigation (ION GNSS+ 2013), Nashville, TN, USA."},{"key":"ref_14","unstructured":"Ruiz, J.L., and Frey, C.H. (2005, January 13\u201316). Geosynchronous Satellite Use of GPS. Proceedings of the 18th International Technical Meeting of The Satellite Division of the Institute of Navigation (ION GNSS 2005), Long Beach, CA, USA."},{"key":"ref_15","unstructured":"Force, D.A., and Miller, J.J. (2013, January 27\u201329). Combined Global Navigation Satellite Systems in the Space Service Volume. Proceedings of the International Technical Meeting 2013, San Diego, CA, USA."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rathinam, A., and Dempster, A.G. (2016, January 12\u201316). Effective utilization of space service volume through combined GNSS. Proceedings of the 29th International Technical Meeting of The Satellite Division of the Institute of Navigation (ION GNSS+ 2016), Portland, OR, USA.","DOI":"10.33012\/2016.14747"},{"key":"ref_17","unstructured":"Guasch, J.R., Weigand, R., Risue\u00f1o, G.L., and Silvestrin, P. (2008, January 10\u201312). AGGA-4-Core device for GNSS space-receivers of the next decade. Proceedings of the NAVITEC, Noordwijk, The Netherlands."},{"key":"ref_18","unstructured":"Lulich, T.D., Bamford, W.A., Winternitz, L.M.B., and Price, S.R. (2012, January 17\u201321). Results from Navigator GPS Flight Testing for the Magnetospheric MultiScale Mission. Proceedings of the 25th International Technical Meeting of the Satellite Division of the Institute of Navigation (ION GNSS 2012), Nashville, TN, USA."},{"key":"ref_19","unstructured":"Mehlen, C., and Laurichesse, D. (2000, January 19\u201322). Real-time GEO orbit determination using TOPSTAR 3000 GPS receiver. Proceedings of the 13th International Technical Meeting of the Satellite Division of the Institute of Navigation (ION GPS 2000), Salt Lake City, UT, USA."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"247","DOI":"10.1007\/s12567-014-0069-6","article-title":"Preparing an autonomous, low-cost GNSS positioning and timing function on board a GEO telecom mission: A study case","volume":"7","author":"Zin","year":"2015","journal-title":"CEAS Space J."},{"key":"ref_21","unstructured":"Balbach, O., Eissfeller, B., Hein, G.W., Enderle, W., Schmidhuber, M., and Lemke, N. (1998, January 11\u201316). Tracking GPS above GPS satellite Altitude: First Results of the GPS Experiment on the HEO Mission Equator-S. Proceedings of the IEEE PLANS 1998, Savannah, GA, USA."},{"key":"ref_22","unstructured":"Moreau, M.C., Bauer, F.H., and Carpenter, J.R. (2002, January 6\u201310). Preliminary Results of the GPS Flight Experiment on the High Earth Orbit AMSAT-OSCAR 40 Spacecraft. Proceedings of the 25th Annual AAS Guidance and Control Conference, Breckenridge, CO, USA."},{"key":"ref_23","unstructured":"Moreau, M.C., Davis, E.P., Carpenter, J.R., Kelbel, D., Davis, G.W., and Axelrad, P. (2002, January 24\u201327). Results from the GPS Flight Experiment on the High Earth Orbit AMSAT OSCAR-40 Spacecraft. Proceedings of the 15th International Technical Meeting of the Satellite Division of The Institute of Navigation (ION GPS 2002), Portland, OR, USA."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Davis, G., Moreau, M., Carpenter, R., and Bauer, F. (2002, January 5\u20138). GPS-Based Navigation and Orbit Determination for AMSAT AO-40 Satellite. Proceedings of the AIAA Guidance, Navigation, and Control Conference and Exhibit, Monterey, CA, USA.","DOI":"10.2514\/6.2002-5004"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"467","DOI":"10.1016\/j.actaastro.2008.07.022","article-title":"En route to the Moon using GNSS signals","volume":"64","author":"Palmerini","year":"2009","journal-title":"Acta Astronaut."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"186","DOI":"10.1016\/j.actaastro.2015.06.007","article-title":"Feasibility study of GNSS as navigation system to reach the Moon","volume":"116","author":"Capuano","year":"2015","journal-title":"Acta Astronaut."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1726","DOI":"10.1016\/j.asr.2015.07.011","article-title":"Injected transfer orbit determination of lunar probe Chang\u2019E 5T1 using short-arc rocket GPS measurements","volume":"56","author":"Fang","year":"2015","journal-title":"Adv. Space Res."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2473","DOI":"10.1016\/j.asr.2015.09.010","article-title":"Orbit improvement for Chang\u2019E-5T lunar returning probe with GNSS technique","volume":"56","author":"Fan","year":"2015","journal-title":"Adv. Space Res."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"35","DOI":"10.1007\/PL00012765","article-title":"Variances of GPS Phase Observations: The SIGMA-\u03b5 Model","volume":"2","author":"Hartinger","year":"1999","journal-title":"GPS Solut."},{"key":"ref_30","first-page":"1121","article-title":"Orbit determination for CE5T based upon GPS data","volume":"38","author":"Cao","year":"2016","journal-title":"Syst. Eng. Electron."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103","DOI":"10.1007\/s10291-012-0264-x","article-title":"Precise relative positioning using real tracking data from COMPASS GEO and IGSO satellites","volume":"17","author":"Shi","year":"2013","journal-title":"GPS Solut."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"641","DOI":"10.1007\/s00190-002-0302-5","article-title":"A Monte-Carlo technique for weight estimation in satellite geodesy","volume":"76","author":"Kusche","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Geod."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"483","DOI":"10.1007\/s10291-011-0248-2","article-title":"IGS08: The IGS realization of ITRF2008","volume":"16","author":"Rebischung","year":"2011","journal-title":"GPS Solut."},{"key":"ref_34","first-page":"41","article-title":"Precise Orbit Determination for LEO Satellites Using Single-frequency GPS Observations","volume":"33","author":"Guo","year":"2013","journal-title":"Chin. Space Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_35","unstructured":"McCarthy, D.D., and Petit, G. (2003). IERS Conventions (2003), Bundesamt fuer Kartographie und Geodaesie."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"50","DOI":"10.1007\/PL00012757","article-title":"A new solar radiation pressure model for GPS","volume":"2","author":"Springer","year":"1999","journal-title":"GPS Solut."},{"key":"ref_37","unstructured":"Bisnath, S., and Langley, R. (2001, January 11\u201314). High-precision, kinematic positioning with a single GPS receiver. Proceedings of the 14th International Technical Meeting of the Satellite Division of The Institute of Navigation (ION GPS 2001), Salt Lake City, UT, USA."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/17\/6\/1260\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T18:37:39Z","timestamp":1760207859000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/17\/6\/1260"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2017,6,1]]},"references-count":37,"journal-issue":{"issue":"6","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2017,6]]}},"alternative-id":["s17061260"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s17061260","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2017,6,1]]}}}