{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,7]],"date-time":"2026-05-07T10:22:04Z","timestamp":1778149324724,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":26,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"6","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2017,6,19]],"date-time":"2017-06-19T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1497830400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>[-5]One of the greatest challenges for fixed-wing unmanned aircraft vehicles (UAVs) is safe landing. Hereafter, an on-ground deployed visual approach is developed in this paper. This approach is definitely suitable for landing within the global navigation satellite system (GNSS)-denied environments. As for applications, the deployed guidance system makes full use of the ground computing resource and feedbacks the aircraft\u2019s real-time localization to its on-board autopilot. Under such circumstances, a separate long baseline stereo architecture is proposed to possess an extendable baseline and wide-angle field of view (FOV) against the traditional fixed baseline schemes. Furthermore, accuracy evaluation of the new type of architecture is conducted by theoretical modeling and computational analysis. Dataset-driven experimental results demonstrate the feasibility and effectiveness of the developed approach.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s17061437","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2017,6,19]],"date-time":"2017-06-19T10:29:26Z","timestamp":1497868166000},"page":"1437","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":31,"title":["Localization Framework for Real-Time UAV Autonomous Landing: An On-Ground Deployed Visual Approach"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"17","author":[{"given":"Weiwei","family":"Kong","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Mechatronics and Automation, National University of Defense Technology, Changsha 410073, China"},{"name":"Naval Academy of Armament, Beijing 100161, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Tianjiang","family":"Hu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Mechatronics and Automation, National University of Defense Technology, Changsha 410073, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Daibing","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Mechatronics and Automation, National University of Defense Technology, Changsha 410073, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Lincheng","family":"Shen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Mechatronics and Automation, National University of Defense Technology, Changsha 410073, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Jianwei","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Technical Aspects of Multimodal Systems(TAMS), Department of Computer Science, University of Hamburg, 22527 Hamburg, Germany"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2017,6,19]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"460","DOI":"10.1038\/nature14542","article-title":"Science, technology and the future of small autonomous drones","volume":"521","author":"Floreano","year":"2015","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"287","DOI":"10.1007\/s10514-013-9349-9","article-title":"Towards a swarm of agile micro quadrotors","volume":"35","author":"Kushleyev","year":"2013","journal-title":"Auton. Robot."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Manning, S.D., Rash, C.E., LeDuc, P.A., Noback, R.K., and McKeon, J. (2004). The Role of Human Causal Factors in US Army Unmanned Aerial Vehicle Accidents, Army Aeromedical Research Lab.","DOI":"10.21236\/ADA421592"},{"key":"ref_4","unstructured":"McLean, D. (1990). Automatic Flight Control Systems, Prentice Hall."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Stevens, B.L., and Lewis, F.L. (2003). Aircraft Control and Simulation, John Wiley & Sons.","DOI":"10.1108\/aeat.2004.12776eae.001"},{"key":"ref_6","unstructured":"Farrell, J., Barth, M., Galijan, R., and Sinko, J. (1998). GPS\/INS Based Lateral and Longitudinal Control Demonstration: Final Report, California Partners for Advanced Transit and Highways (PATH)."},{"key":"ref_7","unstructured":"(2017, June 08). RUAG. Available online: https:\/\/www.ruag.com\/de\/node\/307."},{"key":"ref_8","unstructured":"Northrop Grumman MQ-8B Fire Scout Vertical Takeoff and Landing Tactical Unmanned Aerial Vehicle System, Northrop Grumman."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, W., Song, G., Nonami, K., Hirata, M., and Miyazawa, O. (2006, January 9\u201315). Autonomous Control for Micro-Flying Robot and Small Wireless Helicopter X.R.B.. Proceedings of the 2006 IEEE\/RSJ International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems, Beijing, China.","DOI":"10.1109\/IROS.2006.282142"},{"key":"ref_10","first-page":"269","article-title":"Autonomous hovering and landing of a quad-rotor micro aerial vehicle by means of on ground stereo vision system","volume":"4","author":"Pebrianti","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Syst. Des. Dyn."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Martinez, C., Campoy, P., Mondragon, I., and Olivares-Mendez, M.A. (2009, January 10\u201315). Trinocular ground system to control UAVs. Proceedings of the 2009 IEEE\/RSJ International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems, St. Louis, MO, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/IROS.2009.5354489"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Guan, B., Sun, X., Shang, Y., Zhang, X., and Hofer, M. (2017). Multi-camera networks for motion parameter estimation of an aircraft. Int. J. Adv. Robot. Syst., 14.","DOI":"10.1177\/1729881417692312"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"418","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ast.2016.09.005","article-title":"A UWB positioning network enabling unmanned aircraft systems auto land","volume":"58","author":"Kim","year":"2016","journal-title":"Aerosp. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_14","unstructured":"Kong, W., Zhang, D., Wang, X., Xian, Z., and Zhang, J. (2013, January 3\u20137). Autonomous landing of an UAV with a ground-based actuated infrared stereo vision system. Proceedings of the 2013 IEEE\/RSJ International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems, Tokyo, Japan."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kong, W., Zhou, D., Zhang, Y., Zhang, D., Wang, X., Zhao, B., Yan, C., Shen, L., and Zhang, J. (2014, January 14\u201318). A ground-based optical system for autonomous landing of a fixed wing UAV. Proceedings of the 2014 IEEE\/RSJ International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems, Chicago, IL, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/IROS.2014.6943244"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tang, D., Hu, T., Shen, L., Zhang, D., Kong, W., and Low, K.H. (2016). Ground Stereo Vision-based Navigation for Autonomous Take-off and Landing of UAVs: A Chan-Vese Model Approach. Int. J. Adv. Robot. Syst., 13.","DOI":"10.5772\/62027"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"43","DOI":"10.5772\/62257","article-title":"Stereo vision guiding for the autonomous landing of fixed-wing UAVs: A saliency-inspired approach","volume":"13","author":"Ma","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int. J. Adv. Robot. Syst."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kong, W., Zhou, D., Zhang, D., and Zhang, J. (2014, January 28\u201329). Vision-based autonomous landing system for unmanned aerial vehicle: A survey. Proceedings of the 2014 International Conference on Multisensor Fusion and Information Integration for Intelligent Systems (MFI), Beijing, China.","DOI":"10.1109\/MFI.2014.6997750"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gautam, A., Sujit, P., and Saripalli, S. (2014, January 27\u201330). A survey of autonomous landing techniques for UAVs. Proceedings of the 2014 International Conference on Unmanned Aircraft Systems (ICUAS), Orlando, FL, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICUAS.2014.6842377"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14","DOI":"10.1186\/s40638-016-0046-y","article-title":"ROS-based ground stereo vision detection: Implementation and experiments","volume":"3","author":"Hu","year":"2016","journal-title":"Robot. Biomim."},{"key":"ref_21","unstructured":"Beijing Universal Pioneering Technology Co., Ltd. (2016). iFLYUAS, Beijing Universal Pioneering Technology Co., Ltd."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Danelljan, M., H\u00e4ger, G., Khan, F., and Felsberg, M. (2014). Accurate scale estimation for robust visual tracking. British Machine Vision Conference, Nottingham, 1\u20135 September 2014, BMVA Press.","DOI":"10.5244\/C.28.65"},{"key":"ref_23","unstructured":"Oza, N.C. (2005, January 10\u201312). Online bagging and boosting. Proceedings of the 2005 IEEE International Conference on Systems, Man and Cybernetics, Waikoloa, HI, USA."},{"key":"ref_24","unstructured":"Bradski, G.R. (1998, January 19\u201321). Real time face and object tracking as a component of a perceptual user interface. Proceedings of the IEEE Workshop on Applications of Computer Vision (WACV\u201998), Princeton, NJ, USA."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"130","DOI":"10.1006\/jvci.1999.0442","article-title":"Active contours without edges for vector-valued images","volume":"11","author":"Chan","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Vis. Commun. Image Represent."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1254","DOI":"10.1109\/34.730558","article-title":"A model of saliency-based visual attention for rapid scene analysis","volume":"20","author":"Itti","year":"1998","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Pattern Anal. Mach. Intell."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/17\/6\/1437\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T18:39:37Z","timestamp":1760207977000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/17\/6\/1437"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2017,6,19]]},"references-count":26,"journal-issue":{"issue":"6","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2017,6]]}},"alternative-id":["s17061437"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s17061437","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2017,6,19]]}}}