{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,5]],"date-time":"2026-06-05T04:52:05Z","timestamp":1780635125263,"version":"3.54.1"},"reference-count":24,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"7","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2017,6,27]],"date-time":"2017-06-27T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1498521600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Public-key cryptography is too slow for general purpose encryption, with most applications limiting its use as much as possible. Some secure protocols, especially those that enable forward secrecy, make a much heavier use of public-key cryptography, increasing the demand for lightweight cryptosystems that can be implemented in low powered or mobile devices. This performance requirements are even more significant in critical infrastructure and emergency scenarios where peer-to-peer networks are deployed for increased availability and resiliency. We benchmark several public-key key-exchange algorithms, determining those that are better for the requirements of critical infrastructure and emergency applications and propose a security framework based on these algorithms and study its application to decentralized node or sensor networks.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s17071517","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2017,6,28]],"date-time":"2017-06-28T10:25:56Z","timestamp":1498645556000},"page":"1517","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":27,"title":["Algorithms for Lightweight Key Exchange"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"17","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8254-6255","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Rafael","family":"Alvarez","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Computer Science and Artificial Intelligence, University of Alicante, 03690 Alicante, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6910-6538","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"C\u00e1ndido","family":"Caballero-Gil","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Computer Engineering and Systems, University of La Laguna, 38206 Tenerife, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Juan","family":"Santonja","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Computer Science and Artificial Intelligence, University of Alicante, 03690 Alicante, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0401-6440","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Antonio","family":"Zamora","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Computer Science and Artificial Intelligence, University of Alicante, 03690 Alicante, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2017,6,27]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Galbraith, S.D. (2012). Mathematics of Public Key Cryptography, Cambridge University Press.","DOI":"10.1017\/CBO9781139012843"},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"Menezes, A.J., Van Oorschot, P.C., and Vanstone, S.A. (1996). Handbook of Applied Cryptography, CRC Press."},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"Marlinspike, M. (2013). Advanced cryptographic ratcheting. Whisper System Blog, Unpublished work."},{"key":"ref_4","unstructured":"Marlinspike, M. (2016). Signal on the outside, Signal on the inside. Whisper System Blog, Unpublished work."},{"key":"ref_5","unstructured":"WhatsApp Inc. (2017, May 01). WhatsApp Encryption Overview. Available online: https:\/\/www.whatsapp.com\/security\/WhatsApp-Security-Whitepaper.pdf."},{"key":"ref_6","unstructured":"\u00c1lvarez, R., Santonja, J., and Zamora, A. (December, January 29). Algorithms for Lightweight Key Exchange. Proceedings of the 10th International Conference on Ubiquitous Computing and Ambient Intelligence, UCAmI 2016, San Bartolom\u00e9 de Tirajana, Spain. Part II 10."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"170","DOI":"10.1007\/s12083-015-0415-2","article-title":"Darkcube: A k-Hypercube based P2P VoIP protocol","volume":"10","author":"Aguirre","year":"2017","journal-title":"Peer-to-Peer Netw. Appl."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Costello, C., and Longa, P. (2015, January 7\u201311). FourQ: Four-Dimensional Decompositions on a Q-curve over the Mersenne Prime. Proceedings of the International Conference on the Theory and Application of Cryptology and Information Security, Kaoshiung, Taiwan.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-662-48797-6_10"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Longa, P. (2016, January 10\u201312). FourQNEON: Faster elliptic curve scalar multiplications on ARM processors. Proceedings of the Selected Areas in Cryptography-SAC, St. John\u2019s, NL, Canada.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-69453-5_27"},{"key":"ref_10","first-page":"203","article-title":"Twenty years of attacks on the RSA cryptosystem","volume":"46","author":"Boneh","year":"1999","journal-title":"Notices AMS"},{"key":"ref_11","unstructured":"Kerry, C.F. (2013). Digital Signature Standard (DSS), Information Technology Laboratory, National Institute of Standards and Technology. FIPS PUB 186-4."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Brown, M., Hankerson, D., L\u00f3pez, J., and Menezes, A. (2001, January 8\u201312). Software implementation of the NIST elliptic curves over prime fields. Proceedings of the Cryptographers\u2019 Track at the RSA Conference, San Francisco, CA, USA.","DOI":"10.1007\/3-540-45353-9_19"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"781","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jnt.2009.01.006","article-title":"Elliptic curve cryptography: The serpentine course of a paradigm shift","volume":"131","author":"Koblitz","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Number Theory"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bernstein, D.J. (2006, January 24\u201326). Curve25519: New Diffie-Hellman speed records. Proceedings of the International Workshop on Public Key Cryptography, New York, NY, USA.","DOI":"10.1007\/11745853_14"},{"key":"ref_15","unstructured":"Bernstein, D.J., Birkner, P., Joye, M., Lange, T., and Peters, C. (2008, January 11\u201314). Twisted edwards curves. Proceedings of the International Conference on Cryptology in Africa, Casablanca, Morocco."},{"key":"ref_16","unstructured":"Chou, T. (2015, January 11\u201312). Fastest Curve25519 implementation ever. Proceedings of the Workshop on Elliptic Curve Cryptography Standards, Gaithersburg, MD, USA."},{"key":"ref_17","unstructured":"(2017, May 01). Elliptic Curve Cryptography. Available online: https:\/\/wiki.openssl.org\/index.php\/Elliptic_Curve_Cryptography."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zimmermann, P., Johnston, A., and Callas, J. (2011). Zrtp: Media Path Key Agreement for Secure Rtp, Internet Engineering Task Force. RFC 6189.","DOI":"10.17487\/rfc6189"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"28","DOI":"10.1016\/j.comcom.2016.04.005","article-title":"3AKEP: Triple-authenticated key exchange protocol for peer-to-peer VoIP applications","volume":"85","author":"Pecori","year":"2016","journal-title":"Comput. Commun."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Santos-Gonz\u00e1lez, I., Caballero-Gil, P., Rivero-Garc\u00eda, A., and Hern\u00e1ndez-Goya, C. (2016, January 17\u201319). Distributed Communication System for Emergencies. Proceedings of the 24th Euromicro International Conference on Parallel, Distributed, and Network-Based Processing (PDP), Heraklion, Greece.","DOI":"10.1109\/PDP.2016.12"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rivero-Garc\u00eda, A., Hern\u00e1ndez-Goya, C., Santos-Gonz\u00e1lez, I., and Caballero-Gil, P. (December, January 29). Patients\u2019 Data Management System Through Identity Based Encryption. Proceedings of the 10th International Conference on Ubiquitous Computing and Ambient Intelligence, UCAmI 2016, San Bartolom\u00e9 de Tirajana, Spain. Part II 10.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-48799-1"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pecori, R. (2015, January 27\u201329). A comparison analysis of trust-adaptive approaches to deliver signed public keys in P2P systems. Proceedings of the 2015 7th International Conference on New Technologies, Mobility and Security (NTMS), Paris, France.","DOI":"10.1109\/NTMS.2015.7266463"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"36","DOI":"10.1007\/s102070100002","article-title":"The elliptic curve digital signature algorithm (ECDSA)","volume":"1","author":"Johnson","year":"2001","journal-title":"Int. J. Inf. Secur."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"McGrew, D.A., and Viega, J. (2004, January 20\u201322). The security and performance of the Galois\/Counter Mode (GCM) of operation. Proceedings of the International Conference on Cryptology in India, Chennai, India.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-540-30556-9_27"}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/17\/7\/1517\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T18:40:34Z","timestamp":1760208034000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/17\/7\/1517"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2017,6,27]]},"references-count":24,"journal-issue":{"issue":"7","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2017,7]]}},"alternative-id":["s17071517"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s17071517","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2017,6,27]]}}}