{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,28]],"date-time":"2026-02-28T23:25:46Z","timestamp":1772321146272,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":42,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"8","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2017,8,12]],"date-time":"2017-08-12T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1502496000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Cracks in oil and gas pipelines cause leakage which results in property damage, environmental pollution, and even personal injury or loss of lives. In this paper, an active-sensing approach was conducted to identify the crack damage in pipeline structure using a stress wave propagation approach with piezoceramic transducers. A pipeline segment instrumented with five distributed piezoceramic transducers was used as the testing specimen in this research. Four cracks were artificially cut on the specimen, and each crack had six damage cases corresponding to different crack depths. In this way, cracks at different locations with different damage degrees were simulated. In each damage case, one piezoceramic transducer was used as an actuator to generate a stress wave to propagate along the pipeline specimen, and the other piezoceramic transducers were used as sensors to detect the wave responses. To quantitatively evaluate the crack damage status, a wavelet packet-based damage index matrix was developed. Experimental results show that the proposed method can evaluate the crack severity and estimate the crack location in the pipeline structure based on the proposed damage index matrix. The sensitivity of the proposed method decreases with increasing distance between the crack and the mounted piezoceramic transducers.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s17081812","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2017,8,14]],"date-time":"2017-08-14T10:23:12Z","timestamp":1502706192000},"page":"1812","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":70,"title":["Multiple Cracks Detection in Pipeline Using Damage Index Matrix Based on Piezoceramic Transducer-Enabled Stress Wave Propagation"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"17","author":[{"given":"Guofeng","family":"Du","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Urban Construction, Yangtze University, 434023 Jingzhou, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9577-4540","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Qingzhao","family":"Kong","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Houston, Houston, TX 77204, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Hua","family":"Zhou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Civil Engineering and Architecture, Wuhan University of Technology, 430072 Wuhan, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Haichang","family":"Gu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Houston, Houston, TX 77204, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2017,8,12]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","first-page":"15","article-title":"Application Comparison between MFL&UT Techniques","volume":"5","author":"Wang","year":"2006","journal-title":"Pipeline Tech. Equip."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"790","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jmmm.2006.02.225","article-title":"FEM modeling techniques of magnetic flux leakage-type NDT for ferromagnetic plate inspections","volume":"30","author":"Naemi","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Magn. Magn. Mater."},{"key":"ref_3","first-page":"53","article-title":"Methods of NDT technique for buried pipelines","volume":"31","author":"Zuo","year":"2010","journal-title":"Chem. Equip. Technol."},{"key":"ref_4","first-page":"371","article-title":"The external corrosion inspection technology of buried steel pipeline","volume":"31","author":"Shi","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Oil Gas Technol."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3604","DOI":"10.1109\/TMAG.2003.816152","article-title":"Sensitivity analysis of simulations for magnetic particle inspection using the finite-element method","volume":"39","author":"Lee","year":"2003","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Magn."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1615","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ymssp.2005.02.010","article-title":"Vibration based damage detection using large array sensors and spatial filters","volume":"20","author":"Deraemaeker","year":"2006","journal-title":"Mech. Syst. Signal Process."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2367","DOI":"10.1109\/TIM.2009.2022380","article-title":"Near-field millimeter wave imaging of exposed and covered fatigue cracks","volume":"58","author":"Kharkovsky","year":"2009","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Instrum. Meas."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1693","DOI":"10.1109\/TIM.2009.2027780","article-title":"Depth evaluation of shallow surface cracks in metals using rectangular waveguides at millimeter-wave frequencies","volume":"59","author":"Mcclanahan","year":"2010","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Instrum. Meas."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"445","DOI":"10.1177\/1475921714542891","article-title":"Structural damage identification based on self-fitting ARMAX model and multi-sensor data fusion","volume":"13","author":"Ay","year":"2014","journal-title":"Struct. Health Monit."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1061\/(ASCE)CP.1943-5487.0000324","article-title":"Damage identification scheme based on compressive sensing","volume":"29","author":"Wang","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Comput. Civ. Eng."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1129","DOI":"10.1007\/s12541-011-0151-3","article-title":"A review of piezoelectric energy harvesting based on vibration","volume":"12","author":"Kim","year":"2011","journal-title":"Int. J. Precis. Eng. Manuf."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"456","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ymssp.2014.05.041","article-title":"Identification of cracks in thin-walled structures by means of wavenumber filtering","volume":"50","author":"Kudela","year":"2015","journal-title":"Mech. Syst. Signal Process."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"015005","DOI":"10.1088\/0964-1726\/20\/1\/015005","article-title":"Energy flow in piezoelectric energy harvesting systems","volume":"20","author":"Liang","year":"2010","journal-title":"Smart Mater. Struct."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Staszewski, W.J. (2004). Structural health monitoring using guided ultrasonic waves. Advances in Smart Technologies in Structural Engineering, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-662-05615-8_6"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4695","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijsolstr.2005.02.007","article-title":"Spectrally formulated wavelet finite element for wave propagation and impact force identification in connected 1-D waveguides","volume":"42","author":"Mitra","year":"2005","journal-title":"Int. J. Solids Struct."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"145302","DOI":"10.1088\/0022-3727\/45\/14\/145302","article-title":"Elastic wave and damage quantification in brittle material with evolving damage","volume":"45","author":"Zuo","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Phys. D Appl. Phys."},{"key":"ref_17","unstructured":"Wang, G. (2015, January 14\u201316). Beam Damage Uncertainty Quantification Using Guided Lamb Wave response. Proceedings of the 26th International Conference on Adaptive Structures and Technologies, Kobe, Japan."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"125030","DOI":"10.1088\/0964-1726\/23\/12\/125030","article-title":"Stress wave communication in concrete: I. Characterization of a smart aggregate based concrete channel","volume":"23","author":"Siu","year":"2014","journal-title":"Smart Mater. Struct."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"125031","DOI":"10.1088\/0964-1726\/23\/12\/125031","article-title":"Stress wave communication in concrete: II. Evaluation of low voltage concrete stress wave communications utilizing spectrally efficient modulation schemes with PZT transducers","volume":"23","author":"Siu","year":"2014","journal-title":"Smart Mater. Struct."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115020","DOI":"10.1088\/0964-1726\/24\/11\/115020","article-title":"Crack detection and leakage monitoring on reinforced concrete pipe","volume":"24","author":"Feng","year":"2015","journal-title":"Smart Mater. Struct."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"345","DOI":"10.1016\/j.measurement.2016.01.042","article-title":"Damage detection of concrete piles subject to typical damage types based on stress wave measurement using embedded smart aggregates transducers","volume":"88","author":"Feng","year":"2016","journal-title":"Measurement"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"801","DOI":"10.21595\/jve.2016.16631","article-title":"Damage detection of concrete piles subject to typical damages using piezoceramic based passive sensing approach","volume":"18","author":"Feng","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Vibroeng."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"085025","DOI":"10.1088\/0964-1726\/22\/8\/085025","article-title":"Very early age concrete hydration characterization monitoring using piezoceramic based smart aggregates","volume":"22","author":"Kong","year":"2013","journal-title":"Smart Mater. Struct."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"149","DOI":"10.1080\/19475411.2015.1089525","article-title":"Water presence detection in a concrete crack using smart aggregates","volume":"6","author":"Kong","year":"2015","journal-title":"Int. J. Smart Nano Mater."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"631715","DOI":"10.1155\/2013\/631715","article-title":"Feasibility study on crack detection of pipelines using piezoceramic transducers","volume":"2013","author":"Du","year":"2013","journal-title":"Int. J. Distrib. Sens. Netw."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"037002","DOI":"10.1088\/0964-1726\/25\/3\/037002","article-title":"An experimental feasibility study of pipeline corrosion pit detection using a piezoceramic time reversal mirror","volume":"25","author":"Du","year":"2016","journal-title":"Smart Mater. Struct."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2828","DOI":"10.21595\/jve.2016.17040","article-title":"Damage detection of pipeline multiple cracks using piezoceramic transducers","volume":"18","author":"Du","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Vibroeng."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"045003","DOI":"10.1088\/0964-1726\/22\/4\/045003","article-title":"Dynamic cooperative identification based on synergetic for pipe structural health monitoring with piezoceramic transducers","volume":"22","author":"Hong","year":"2013","journal-title":"Smart Mater. Struct."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"025022","DOI":"10.1088\/1361-665X\/26\/2\/025022","article-title":"Gas pipeline leakage detection based on PZT sensors","volume":"26","author":"Zhu","year":"2017","journal-title":"Smart Mater. Struct."},{"key":"ref_30","first-page":"426","article-title":"A Brief Review on Damage Detection in Pipes Using Stress Wave Factor Technique","volume":"34","author":"Cheng","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Taiyuan Univ. Technol."},{"key":"ref_31","first-page":"1215","article-title":"Guided wave damage detection tomography for structural health monitoring in critical zones of pipelines","volume":"65","author":"Breon","year":"2007","journal-title":"Mater. Eval."},{"key":"ref_32","first-page":"532","article-title":"Guided-wave tomographic imaging of defects in pipe using a probabilistic reconstruction algorithm","volume":"49","author":"Gao","year":"2007","journal-title":"Insight-Non-Destr. Test. Cond. Monit."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115010","DOI":"10.1088\/0964-1726\/18\/11\/115010","article-title":"Development of a real-time active pipeline integrity detection system","volume":"18","author":"Qing","year":"2009","journal-title":"Smart Mater. Struct."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bergman, J., Chung, H., Janapati, V., Li, I., Kumar, A., Kumar-Yadav, S., Chapman, D., Nissan, A., and Sarrafi-Nour, R. (2016, January 6\u201310). Evaluation of the Real-Time Active Pipeline Integrity Detection System for Corrosion Quantification. Proceedings of the Corrosion 2016, Vancouver, BC, Canada.","DOI":"10.5006\/C2016-07509"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"643","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ndteint.2005.03.001","article-title":"Application of neuro-fuzzy techniques in oil pipeline ultrasonic nondestructive testing","volume":"38","author":"Ravanbod","year":"2005","journal-title":"NDT E Int."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"065026","DOI":"10.1088\/0964-1726\/19\/6\/065026","article-title":"Multi-functional smart aggregate-based structural health monitoring of circular reinforced concrete columns subjected to seismic excitations","volume":"19","author":"Gu","year":"2010","journal-title":"Smart Mater. Struct."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"643","DOI":"10.12989\/sss.2016.18.4.643","article-title":"Active monitoring of pipeline tapered thread connection based on time reversal using piezoceramic transducers","volume":"18","author":"Hong","year":"2016","journal-title":"Smart Struct. Syst."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"583205","DOI":"10.1155\/2013\/583205","article-title":"Active sensing based bolted structure health monitoring using piezoceramic transducers","volume":"9","author":"Wang","year":"2013","journal-title":"Int. J. Distrib. Sens. Netw."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ymssp.2011.07.029","article-title":"Active interface debonding detection of concrete-filled steel tube with piezoelectric technologies using wavelet packet analysis","volume":"36","author":"Xu","year":"2013","journal-title":"Mech. Syst. Signal Process."},{"key":"ref_40","first-page":"17","article-title":"Application of wavelet transform analysis in defects-detection","volume":"17","author":"Zhang","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Exp. Mech."},{"key":"ref_41","first-page":"280","article-title":"Study on fault diagnosis of low-speed rolling bearing using stress waves and wavelet analysis","volume":"20","author":"Wang","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Vib. Eng."},{"key":"ref_42","first-page":"82","article-title":"Wavelet De-noising Method in Stress Wave Detection for Oil Pipeline","volume":"22","author":"Chen","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Vib. Shock"}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/17\/8\/1812\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T18:42:11Z","timestamp":1760208131000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/17\/8\/1812"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2017,8,12]]},"references-count":42,"journal-issue":{"issue":"8","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2017,8]]}},"alternative-id":["s17081812"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s17081812","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2017,8,12]]}}}