{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,6]],"date-time":"2026-03-06T06:20:21Z","timestamp":1772778021650,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":109,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"8","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2017,8,10]],"date-time":"2017-08-10T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1502323200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Liaoning Natural Science Foundation","award":["2015020019"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2015020019"]}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100012226","name":"Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["3132016320"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["3132016320"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100012226","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100012226","name":"Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["3132016347"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["3132016347"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100012226","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100012226","name":"Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["3132017079"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["3132017079"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100012226","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The density of oxygen vacancies in semiconductor gas sensors was often assumed to be identical throughout the grain in the numerical discussion of the gas-sensing mechanism of the devices. In contrast, the actual devices had grains with inhomogeneous distribution of oxygen vacancy under non-ideal conditions. This conflict between reality and discussion drove us to study the formation and migration of the oxygen defects in semiconductor grains. A model of the gradient-distributed oxygen vacancy was proposed based on the effects of cooling rate and re-annealing on semiconductive thin films. The model established the diffusion equations of oxygen vacancy according to the defect kinetics of diffusion and exclusion. We described that the steady-state and transient-state oxygen vacancy distributions, which were used to calculate the gas-sensing characteristics of the sensor resistance and response to reducing gases under two different conditions. The gradient-distributed oxygen vacancy model had the applications in simulating the sensor performances, such as the power law, the grain size effect and the effect of depletion layer width.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s17081852","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2017,8,10]],"date-time":"2017-08-10T10:34:35Z","timestamp":1502361275000},"page":"1852","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":34,"title":["Inhomogeneous Oxygen Vacancy Distribution in Semiconductor Gas Sensors: Formation, Migration and Determination on Gas Sensing Characteristics"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"17","author":[{"given":"Jianqiao","family":"Liu","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Information Science and Technology, Dalian Maritime University, Linghai Road 1, Ganjingzi District, Dalian 116026, China"}]},{"given":"Yinglin","family":"Gao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Marine Electrical Engineering, Dalian Maritime University, Linghai Road 1, Ganjingzi District, Dalian 116026, China"}]},{"given":"Xu","family":"Wu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Marine Electrical Engineering, Dalian Maritime University, Linghai Road 1, Ganjingzi District, Dalian 116026, China"}]},{"given":"Guohua","family":"Jin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Information Science and Technology, Dalian Maritime University, Linghai Road 1, Ganjingzi District, Dalian 116026, China"}]},{"given":"Zhaoxia","family":"Zhai","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Information Science and Technology, Dalian Maritime University, Linghai Road 1, Ganjingzi District, Dalian 116026, China"}]},{"given":"Huan","family":"Liu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Optical and Electronic Information, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, 1037 Luoyu Road, Wuhan 430074, China"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2017,8,10]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Taguchi, N. (1962). A Metal Oxide Gas Sensor. (45-38200), Japanese Patent."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1502","DOI":"10.1021\/ac60191a001","article-title":"A new detector for gaseous components using semiconductive thin films","volume":"34","author":"Seiyama","year":"1962","journal-title":"Anal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"301","DOI":"10.1016\/S0925-4005(01)00970-4","article-title":"New applications of tin oxide gas sensors: II. Intelligent sensor system for reliable monitoring of ammonia leakages","volume":"81","author":"Jerger","year":"2002","journal-title":"Sens. Actuator B Chem."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"283","DOI":"10.1016\/S0925-4005(99)00090-8","article-title":"Air quality monitoring by means of sol-gel integrated tin oxide thin films","volume":"58","author":"Rella","year":"1999","journal-title":"Sens. Actuator B Chem."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3057","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apsusc.2006.06.052","article-title":"Low-temperature CO gas sensors based on Au-SnO2 thick film","volume":"253","author":"Wang","year":"2007","journal-title":"Appl. Surf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1010540716271","article-title":"Sensors based on SnO2 as a detector for CO oxidation in air","volume":"72","author":"Kocemba","year":"2001","journal-title":"React. Kinet. Catal. Lett."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"88","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mssp.2013.11.002","article-title":"Synthesis and characterization of CuO\u2013SnO2 nanocomposite and its application as liquefied petroleum gas sensor","volume":"18","author":"Singh","year":"2014","journal-title":"Mater. Sci. Semicond. Proc."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"230","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tsf.2013.02.039","article-title":"CO sensitivity of La2O3-doped SnO2 thick film gas sensor","volume":"547","author":"Choi","year":"2013","journal-title":"Thin Solid Films"},{"key":"ref_9","first-page":"172","article-title":"Influences of Al, Pd and Pt additives on the conduction mechanism as well as the surface and bulk properties of SnO2 based polycrystalline thick film gas sensors","volume":"171","author":"Weimar","year":"2012","journal-title":"Sens. Actuator B Chem."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1889","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ceramint.2011.02.005","article-title":"Nanocrystalline In2O3-SnO2 thick films for low-temperature hydrogen sulfide detection","volume":"37","author":"Liu","year":"2011","journal-title":"Ceram. Int."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"510","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2011.05.011","article-title":"Conduction mechanisms in SnO2 based polycrystalline thick film gas sensors exposed to CO and H2 in different oxygen backgrounds","volume":"157","author":"Weimar","year":"2011","journal-title":"Sens. Actuator B Chem."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"322","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2009.03.002","article-title":"Transport and gas sensing properties of In2O3 nanocrystalline thick films: A Hall effect based approach","volume":"139","author":"Oprea","year":"2009","journal-title":"Sens. Actuator B Chem."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"70","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2004.10.049","article-title":"AC measurements and modeling of WO3 thick film gas sensors","volume":"108","author":"Carotta","year":"2005","journal-title":"Sens. Actuator B Chem."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"271","DOI":"10.1016\/S0040-6090(96)09152-3","article-title":"Grain size effects on H2 gas sensitivity of thick film resistor using SnO2 nanoparticles","volume":"295","author":"Ansari","year":"1997","journal-title":"Thin Solid Films"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"60","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jallcom.2015.11.015","article-title":"Templated bicontinuous tin oxide thin film fabrication and the NO2 gas sensing","volume":"659","author":"Zhao","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Alloy. Compd."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"027122","DOI":"10.1063\/1.4909542","article-title":"A novel synthesis of tin oxide thin films by the sol-gel process for optoelectronic applications","volume":"5","author":"Marikkannan","year":"2015","journal-title":"AIP Adv."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8045","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ceramint.2013.12.156","article-title":"Aerosol assisted chemical vapour deposited (AACVD) of TiO2 thin film as compact layer for dye-sensitised solar cell","volume":"40","author":"Lim","year":"2014","journal-title":"Ceram. Int."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"447","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2011.10.059","article-title":"NO2-sensing properties of porous WO3 gas sensor based on anodized sputtered tungsten thin film","volume":"161","author":"Zeng","year":"2012","journal-title":"Sens. Actuator B Chem."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2012.02.025","article-title":"Comparison of the gas sensing performance of SnO2 thin film and SnO2 nanowire sensors","volume":"165","author":"Brunet","year":"2012","journal-title":"Sens. Actuator B Chem."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1080\/10408430902815725","article-title":"Grain size effects in sensor response of nanostructured SnO2-and In2O3-based conductometric thin film gas sensor","volume":"34","author":"Korotcenkov","year":"2009","journal-title":"Crit. Rev. Solid State"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"239","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2008.01.028","article-title":"Semiconductor gas sensor based on Pd-doped SnO2 nanorod thin films","volume":"132","author":"Lee","year":"2008","journal-title":"Sens. Actuator B Chem."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"244","DOI":"10.1016\/S0925-4005(01)00741-9","article-title":"Peculiarities of SnO2 thin film deposition by spray pyrolysis for gas sensor application","volume":"77","author":"Korotcenkov","year":"2001","journal-title":"Sens. Actuator B Chem."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109","DOI":"10.1016\/S0925-4005(00)00306-3","article-title":"Response behaviour of tin oxide thin film gas sensors grown by MOCVD","volume":"63","author":"Brown","year":"2000","journal-title":"Sens. Actuator B Chem."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"788","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2010.01.039","article-title":"Tin oxide thin films prepared by aerosol-assisted chemical vapor deposition and the characteristics on gas detection","volume":"145","author":"Zhao","year":"2010","journal-title":"Sens. Actuator B Chem."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"625","DOI":"10.1166\/sl.2011.1577","article-title":"Preparation of tin oxide thin films on silicon substrates via sol-gel routes and the prospects for the H2S gas sensor","volume":"9","author":"Gong","year":"2011","journal-title":"Sens. Lett."},{"key":"ref_26","first-page":"201","article-title":"Characterization and gas sensing properties of copper-doped tin oxide thin films deposited by ultrasonic spray pyrolysis","volume":"22","author":"Zhai","year":"2016","journal-title":"Mater. Sci."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Miller, D.R., Akbar, S.A., and Morris, P.A. (2014). Nanoscale metal oxide-based heterojunctions for gas sensing: A review. Sens. Actuator B Chem., 250\u2013272.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2014.07.074"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5288","DOI":"10.1166\/jnn.2014.9142","article-title":"Structural, optical and sensing properties of pure and Cu-doped SnO2 nanowires","volume":"14","author":"Johari","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Nanosci. Nanotechnol."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1450031","DOI":"10.1142\/S1793604714500313","article-title":"Preparation and gas sensing property of Ag-supported vanadium oxide nanotubes","volume":"7","author":"Jin","year":"2014","journal-title":"Funct. Mater. Lett."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"587","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2009.02.053","article-title":"Copper doped SnO2 nanowires as highly sensitive H2S gas sensor","volume":"138","author":"Kumar","year":"2009","journal-title":"Sens. Actuator B Chem."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"573","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2006.03.010","article-title":"Room temperature hydrogen response kinetics of nano-micro-integrated doped tin oxide sensor","volume":"120","author":"Shukla","year":"2007","journal-title":"Sens. Actuator B Chem."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"63","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2007.07.001","article-title":"Sensing of CH4, CO and ethanol with in situ nanoparticle aerosol-fabricated multilayer sensors","volume":"127","author":"Sahm","year":"2007","journal-title":"Sens. Actuator B Chem."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1620","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mejo.2006.04.017","article-title":"Core-shell Pd nanoparticles embedded in SnOX films. Synthesis, analytical characterisation and perspective application in chemiresistor-type sensing devices","volume":"37","author":"Cioffi","year":"2006","journal-title":"Microelectron. J."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"449","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2004.07.001","article-title":"High sensitivity of CuO modified SnO2 nanoribbons to H2S at room temperature","volume":"105","author":"Kong","year":"2005","journal-title":"Sens. Actuator B Chem."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1869","DOI":"10.1063\/1.1504867","article-title":"Stable and highly sensitive gas sensors based on semiconducting oxide nanobelts","volume":"81","author":"Comini","year":"2002","journal-title":"Appl. Phys. Lett."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"121","DOI":"10.1016\/S0925-4005(98)00144-0","article-title":"Dilute hydrogen sulfide sensing properties of CuO-SnO2 thin film prepared by low-pressure evaporation method","volume":"49","author":"Tamaki","year":"1998","journal-title":"Sens. Actuator B Chem."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"211","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cattod.2007.03.011","article-title":"Influence of annealing temperature on the CO sensing mechanism for tin dioxide based sensors\u2013Operando studies","volume":"126","author":"Koziej","year":"2007","journal-title":"Catal. Today"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"159","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2005.11.031","article-title":"Surface modified BaTiO3 thick film resistors as H2S gas sensors","volume":"117","author":"Jain","year":"2006","journal-title":"Sens. Actuator B Chem."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"257","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2015.07.115","article-title":"Microwave assisted synthesis of hierarchical Pd\/SnO2 nanostructures for CO gas sensor","volume":"222","author":"Wang","year":"2016","journal-title":"Sens. Actuator B Chem."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"460","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2012.11.051","article-title":"Tin oxide films for nitrogen dioxide gas detection at low temperatures","volume":"177","author":"Liu","year":"2013","journal-title":"Sens. Actuator B Chem."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"57","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2008.04.010","article-title":"Highly sensitive SnO2 thin film with low operating temperature prepared by sol-gel technique","volume":"134","author":"Shuping","year":"2008","journal-title":"Sens. Actuator B Chem."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"741","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2013.03.100","article-title":"Study of collective efforts of catlytic activity and photoactivation to enhance room temperature response of SnO2 thin film sensor for methane","volume":"182","author":"Haridas","year":"2013","journal-title":"Sens. Actuator B Chem."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"316","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2006.02.022","article-title":"Heterocontact type CuO-modified SnO2 sensor for the detection of a ppm level H2S gas at room temperature","volume":"120","author":"Patil","year":"2006","journal-title":"Sens. Actuator B Chem."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"827","DOI":"10.1016\/S0038-1101(02)00373-8","article-title":"Novel nitrogen monoxides (NO) gas sensors integrated with tungsten trioxide (WO3)\/pin structure for room temperature operation","volume":"47","author":"Ho","year":"2003","journal-title":"Solid State Electron."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"26","DOI":"10.1016\/S0925-4005(02)00046-1","article-title":"A novel hydrogen sulfide room temperature sensor based on copper nanocluster functionalized tin oxide thin films","volume":"85","author":"Niranjan","year":"2002","journal-title":"Sens. Actuator B Chem."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"46","DOI":"10.1016\/S0925-4005(99)00467-0","article-title":"Room temperature H2S sensing properties and mechanism of CeO2-SnO2 sol-gel thin films","volume":"66","author":"Fang","year":"2000","journal-title":"Sens. Actuator B Chem."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1029","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2017.03.044","article-title":"Colloidal synthesis of tungsten oxide quantum dots for sensitive and selective H2S gas detection","volume":"248","author":"Yu","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sens. Actuator B Chem."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"271","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tsf.2016.08.023","article-title":"Sensitive NO2 gas sensors employing spray-coated colloidal quantum dots","volume":"618","author":"Li","year":"2016","journal-title":"Thin Solid Films"},{"key":"ref_49","first-page":"766","article-title":"Chemiresistive gas sensors employing solution-processed metal oxide quantum dot films","volume":"105","author":"Liu","year":"2014","journal-title":"Appl. Phys. Lett."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2718","DOI":"10.1002\/adma.201304366","article-title":"Physically flexible, rapid-response gas sensor based on colloidal quantum dot solids","volume":"26","author":"Liu","year":"2014","journal-title":"Adv. Mater."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"97","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2011.06.056","article-title":"Synthesis of quantum size ZnO crystals and their gas sensing properties for NO2","volume":"159","author":"Shouli","year":"2011","journal-title":"Sens. Actuator B Chem."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2009.11.002","article-title":"Low temperature CO and CH4 dual selective gas sensor using SnO2 quantum dots prepared by sonochemical method","volume":"145","author":"Mortazavi","year":"2010","journal-title":"Sens. Actuator B Chem."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"434","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2015.02.047","article-title":"Enhancement of hydrogen sulfide gas sensing of PbS colloidal quantum dots by remote doping through ligand exchange","volume":"212","author":"Liu","year":"2015","journal-title":"Sens. Actuator B Chem."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"198","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2014.07.058","article-title":"Resistive gas sensors based on colloidal quantum dot (CQD) solids for hydrogen sulfide detection","volume":"217","author":"Li","year":"2015","journal-title":"Sens. Actuator B Chem."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"840","DOI":"10.1021\/acsami.5b10188","article-title":"Solution-processed gas sensors employing SnO2 quantum dot\/MWCNT Nanocomposites","volume":"8","author":"Liu","year":"2016","journal-title":"ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1205","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.chemmater.5b04850","article-title":"Sensitive room-temperature H2S gas sensors employing SnO2 quantum wire\/reduced graphene oxide nanocomposites","volume":"28","author":"Song","year":"2016","journal-title":"Chem. Mater."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"558","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2017.03.098","article-title":"Sensitive H2S gas sensors employing colloidal zinc oxide quantum dots","volume":"249","author":"Zhang","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sens. Actuator B Chem."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"632","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2017.04.023","article-title":"Enhanced H2S gas sensing properties based on SnO2 quantum wire\/reduced graphene oxide nanocomposites: Equilibrium and kinetics modeling","volume":"249","author":"Song","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sens. Actuator B Chem."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2009.01.023","article-title":"New perspectives of gas sensor technology","volume":"138","author":"Yamazoe","year":"2009","journal-title":"Sens. Actuator B Chem."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"443","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2012.08.060","article-title":"Two types of moisture effects on the receptor function of neat tin oxide gas sensor to oxygen","volume":"176","author":"Yamazoe","year":"2013","journal-title":"Sens. Actuator B Chem."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"128","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2012.01.020","article-title":"Extension of receptor function theory to include two types of adsorbed oxygen for oxide semiconductor gas sensors","volume":"163","author":"Yamazoe","year":"2012","journal-title":"Sens. Actuator B Chem."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"277","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2010.01.018","article-title":"Theoretical approach to the gas response of oxide semiconductor film devices under control of gas diffusion and reaction effects","volume":"154","author":"Yamazoe","year":"2011","journal-title":"Sens. Actuator B Chem."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6148","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tsf.2009.04.003","article-title":"Receptor function of small semiconductor crystals with clean and electron-traps dispersed surfaces","volume":"517","author":"Yamazoe","year":"2009","journal-title":"Thin Solid Films"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2911","DOI":"10.1063\/1.1660648","article-title":"Electrical properties of high-quality stannic oxide crystals","volume":"42","author":"Fonstad","year":"1971","journal-title":"J. Appl. Phys."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"329","DOI":"10.1016\/0250-6874(81)80054-6","article-title":"Semiconductor gas sensors","volume":"2","author":"Morrison","year":"1982","journal-title":"Sens. Actuator"},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"425","DOI":"10.1016\/0250-6874(87)80061-6","article-title":"Selectivity in semiconductor gas sensors","volume":"12","author":"Morrison","year":"1987","journal-title":"Sens. Actuator"},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"190","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2009.04.027","article-title":"Properties and mechanism study of SnO2 nanocrystals for H2S thick-film sensors","volume":"140","author":"Liu","year":"2009","journal-title":"Sens. Actuator B Chem."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"862","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2017.01.057","article-title":"Gas-sensing properties and sensitivity promoting mechanism of Cu-added SnO2 thin films deposited by ultrasonic spray pyrolysis","volume":"248","author":"Liu","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sens. Actuator B Chem."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"283","DOI":"10.1016\/0250-6874(87)80007-0","article-title":"Mechanism of semiconductor gas sensor operation","volume":"11","author":"Morrison","year":"1987","journal-title":"Sens. Actuator"},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"335","DOI":"10.1016\/0039-6028(79)90411-4","article-title":"Interactions of tin oxide surface with O2, H2O and H2","volume":"86","author":"Yamazoe","year":"1979","journal-title":"Surf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8302","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tsf.2007.03.018","article-title":"Contribution of electron tunneling transport in semiconductor gas sensor","volume":"515","author":"Yamazoe","year":"2007","journal-title":"Thin Solid Films"},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1352","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2011.09.075","article-title":"Basic approach to the transducer function of oxide semiconductor gas sensors","volume":"160","author":"Yamazoe","year":"2011","journal-title":"Sens. Actuator B Chem."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"125","DOI":"10.1016\/S0925-4005(01)00890-5","article-title":"Theory of gas-diffusion controlled sensitivity for thin film semiconductor gas sensor","volume":"80","author":"Sakai","year":"2001","journal-title":"Sens. Actuator B Chem."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"216","DOI":"10.1016\/S0925-4005(01)01043-7","article-title":"Diffusion equation-based study of thin film semiconductor gas sensor-response transient","volume":"83","author":"Matsunaga","year":"2002","journal-title":"Sens. Actuator B Chem."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"85","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mseb.2009.07.008","article-title":"Gas sensing characteristics of SnO2 thin films and analyses of sensor response by the gas diffusion theory","volume":"164","author":"Gong","year":"2009","journal-title":"Mater. Sci. Eng. B Adv."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"289","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2009.02.018","article-title":"The sensor response of tin oxide thin films to different gas concentration and the modification of the gas diffusion theory","volume":"138","author":"Liu","year":"2009","journal-title":"Sens. Actuator B Chem."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"40","DOI":"10.1016\/j.susc.2011.08.018","article-title":"Ab initio study of oxygen point defects on tungsten trioxide surface","volume":"606","author":"Oison","year":"2012","journal-title":"Surf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"62","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2014.03.012","article-title":"Al-doping induced formation of oxygen-vacancy for enhancing gas-sensing properties of SnO2 NTs by electrospinning","volume":"198","author":"Wu","year":"2014","journal-title":"Sens. Actuator B Chem."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"43","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jallcom.2016.04.220","article-title":"SnO2 nanocrystals with abundant oxygen vacancies: Preparation and room temperature NO2 sensing","volume":"681","author":"Wei","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Alloy. Compd."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"352","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jallcom.2016.05.053","article-title":"Both oxygen vacancies defects and porosity facilitated NO2 gas sensing response in 2D ZnO nanowalls at room temperature","volume":"682","author":"Yu","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Alloy. Compd."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"983","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2017.01.092","article-title":"Highly sensitive and rapid chemiresistive sensor towards trace nitro-explosive vapors based on oxygen vacancy-rich and defective crystallized In-doped ZnO","volume":"244","author":"Ge","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sens. Actuator B Chem."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1061","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apsusc.2015.07.072","article-title":"Synthesis and oxygen vacancy related NO2 gas sensing properties of ZnO: Co nanorods arrays gown by a hydrothermal method","volume":"353","author":"Zou","year":"2015","journal-title":"Appl. Surf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"989","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2014.12.072","article-title":"Generation of oxygen vacancies in ZnO nanorods\/films and their effects on gas sensing properties","volume":"209","author":"Kim","year":"2015","journal-title":"Sens. Actuator B Chem."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"886","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2017.01.105","article-title":"Role of oxygen vacancy in tuning of optical, electrical and NO2 sensing properties of ZnO1-X coatings at room temperature","volume":"248","author":"Zhang","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sens. Actuator B Chem."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"969","DOI":"10.1016\/j.matdes.2015.08.027","article-title":"The interaction between oxygen vacancies and doping atoms in ZnO","volume":"87","author":"Si","year":"2015","journal-title":"Mater. Des."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"499","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2015.08.040","article-title":"DFT study on interaction of NO2 with the vacancy-defected WO3 nanowires for gas-sensing","volume":"222","author":"Qin","year":"2016","journal-title":"Sens. Actuator B Chem."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"362","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apsusc.2014.05.069","article-title":"DFT study of CO sensing mechanism on hexagonal WO3 (001) surface: The role of oxygen vacancy","volume":"311","author":"Tian","year":"2014","journal-title":"Appl. Surf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"171","DOI":"10.1016\/j.commatsci.2014.04.018","article-title":"Migrations of oxygen vacancy in tungsten oxide (WO3): A density functional theory study","volume":"90","author":"Le","year":"2014","journal-title":"Comput. Mater. Sci."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"566","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2007.07.036","article-title":"Theory of power laws for semiconductor gas sensors","volume":"128","author":"Yamazoe","year":"2008","journal-title":"Sens. Actuator B Chem."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"330","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2010.06.065","article-title":"Time-dependent oxygen vacancy distribution and gas sensing characteristics of tin oxide gas sensitive thin films","volume":"150","author":"Liu","year":"2010","journal-title":"Sens. Actuator B Chem."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"657","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2010.01.015","article-title":"Influences of cooling rate on gas sensitive tin oxide thin films and a model of gradient distributed oxygen vacancies in SnO2 crystallites","volume":"145","author":"Liu","year":"2010","journal-title":"Sens. Actuator B Chem."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"457","DOI":"10.1007\/s13391-015-4399-0","article-title":"Numeral description of grain size effects of tin oxide gas-sensitive elements and evaluation of depletion layer width","volume":"11","author":"Liu","year":"2015","journal-title":"Electron. Mater. Lett."},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"34","DOI":"10.1007\/s13391-014-4176-5","article-title":"Simulation of the grain size effect in gas-sensitive SnO2 thin films using the oxygen vacancy gradient distribution model","volume":"11","author":"Liu","year":"2015","journal-title":"Electron. Mater. Lett."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"146","DOI":"10.1007\/s00339-016-9675-9","article-title":"Effect of depletion layer width on electrical properties of semiconductive thin film gas sensor: A numerical study based on the gradient-distributed oxygen vacancy model","volume":"122","author":"Liu","year":"2016","journal-title":"Appl. Phys. A"},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"279","DOI":"10.4028\/www.scientific.net\/KEM.605.279","article-title":"Simulation of grain size effects on gas sensing characteristics of semiconductor sensors in nitrogen oxides detection","volume":"605","author":"Liu","year":"2014","journal-title":"Key Eng. Mater."},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1477","DOI":"10.1166\/sl.2014.3322","article-title":"Numerical discussion of the grain size effects on tungsten oxide and indium oxide based gas sensors in NOX detection","volume":"12","author":"Liu","year":"2014","journal-title":"Sens. Lett."},{"key":"ref_97","unstructured":"Sze, S.M. (2012). Semiconductor Devices: Physics and Technology, John Willey & Sons, Inc.. [3rd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"553","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcrysgro.2004.12.114","article-title":"Improvement of crystal quality of GaInNAs films grown by atomic hydrogen-assisted RF-MBE","volume":"278","author":"Shimizu","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Cryst. Growth"},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"245","DOI":"10.1016\/S0040-6090(98)00808-6","article-title":"Defect distribution and evolution in He+ implanted Si studied by variable-energy positron beam","volume":"333","author":"Zhang","year":"1998","journal-title":"Thin Solid Films"},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.1016\/S0925-4005(99)00015-5","article-title":"Influence of frozen distributions of oxygen vacancies on tin oxide conductance","volume":"55","author":"Blaustein","year":"1999","journal-title":"Sens. Actuator B Chem."},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"293","DOI":"10.1016\/0022-4596(88)90032-1","article-title":"Investigations of the bulk defect chemistry of polycrystalline tin (IV) oxide","volume":"72","author":"Maier","year":"1988","journal-title":"J. Solid State Chem."},{"key":"ref_102","unstructured":"Kittel, C. (2004). Introduction to Solid State Physics, John Wiley & Sons, Inc."},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1354","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2015.07.065","article-title":"Evaluation of depletion layer width and gas-sensing properties of antimony-doped tin oxide thin film sensors","volume":"220","author":"Liu","year":"2015","journal-title":"Sens. Actuator B Chem."},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"125","DOI":"10.4028\/www.scientific.net\/KEM.644.125","article-title":"Evaluation of depletion layer width in antimony-doped tin oxide thin films for gas sensors","volume":"644","author":"Liu","year":"2015","journal-title":"Key Eng. Mater."},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sze, S.M., and Ng, K.K. (2006). Physics of Semiconductor Devices, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.. [3rd ed.].","DOI":"10.1002\/0470068329"},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"808","DOI":"10.1063\/1.1425434","article-title":"Model for Schottky barrier and surface states in nanostructured n-type semiconductors","volume":"91","author":"Guidi","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Appl. Phys."},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"147","DOI":"10.1016\/0925-4005(91)80207-Z","article-title":"Grain size effects on gas sensitivity of porous SnO2-based elements","volume":"3","author":"Xu","year":"1991","journal-title":"Sens. Actuator B Chem."},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"J93","DOI":"10.1149\/1.2832662","article-title":"Roles of shape and size of component crystals in semiconductor gas sensors II. Response to NO2 and H2","volume":"155","author":"Yamazoe","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Electrochem. Soc."},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"J85","DOI":"10.1149\/1.2832655","article-title":"Roles of shape and size of component crystals in semiconductor gas sensors I. Response to oxygen","volume":"155","author":"Yamazoe","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Electrochem. Soc."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/17\/8\/1852\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T18:42:00Z","timestamp":1760208120000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/17\/8\/1852"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2017,8,10]]},"references-count":109,"journal-issue":{"issue":"8","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2017,8]]}},"alternative-id":["s17081852"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s17081852","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2017,8,10]]}}}