{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,5]],"date-time":"2026-04-05T09:35:41Z","timestamp":1775381741588,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":137,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"9","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2017,9,8]],"date-time":"2017-09-08T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1504828800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Flow sensing in hostile environments is of increasing interest for applications in the automotive, aerospace, and chemical and resource industries. There are thermal and non-thermal approaches for high-temperature flow measurement. Compared to their non-thermal counterparts, thermal flow sensors have recently attracted a great deal of interest due to the ease of fabrication, lack of moving parts and higher sensitivity. In recent years, various thermal flow sensors have been developed to operate at temperatures above 500 \u00b0C. Microelectronic technologies such as silicon-on-insulator (SOI), and complementary metal-oxide semiconductor (CMOS) have been used to make thermal flow sensors. Thermal sensors with various heating and sensing materials such as metals, semiconductors, polymers and ceramics can be selected according to the targeted working temperature. The performance of these thermal flow sensors is evaluated based on parameters such as thermal response time, flow sensitivity. The data from thermal flow sensors reviewed in this paper indicate that the sensing principle is suitable for the operation under harsh environments. Finally, the paper discusses the packaging of the sensor, which is the most important aspect of any high-temperature sensing application. Other than the conventional wire-bonding, various novel packaging techniques have been developed for high-temperature application.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s17092061","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2017,9,8]],"date-time":"2017-09-08T11:34:52Z","timestamp":1504870492000},"page":"2061","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":73,"title":["Thermal Flow Sensors for Harsh Environments"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"17","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6073-4829","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Vivekananthan","family":"Balakrishnan","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Queensland Micro- and Nanotechnology Centre, Griffith University, Brisbane 4111, QLD, Australia"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1724-5667","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Hoang-Phuong","family":"Phan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Queensland Micro- and Nanotechnology Centre, Griffith University, Brisbane 4111, QLD, Australia"}]},{"given":"Toan","family":"Dinh","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Queensland Micro- and Nanotechnology Centre, Griffith University, Brisbane 4111, QLD, Australia"}]},{"given":"Dzung","family":"Dao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Engineering, Griffith University, Gold Coast 4222, QLD, Australia"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3626-5361","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Nam-Trung","family":"Nguyen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Queensland Micro- and Nanotechnology Centre, Griffith University, Brisbane 4111, QLD, Australia"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2017,9,8]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"French, P., Krijnen, G., and Roozeboom, F. (2016). Precision in harsh environments. Microsyst. Nanoeng., 2.","DOI":"10.1038\/micronano.2016.48"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Vivekananathan, B., Ponnusamy, L., and Thiruppathi, K. (2015, January 18\u201320). Design and optimization of multivariable controller for CSTR system. Proceedings of the 2015 International Conference on Robotics, Automation, Control and Embedded Systems (RACE), Chennai, India.","DOI":"10.1109\/RACE.2015.7097271"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Thiruppathi, K., Ponnusamy, L., and Vivekananathan, B. (2015, January 18\u201320). Design and tuning of decoupled PI controllers for real time deep-sea conditions mimicking system. Proceedings of the 2015 International Conference on Robotics, Automation, Control and Embedded Systems (RACE), Chennai, India.","DOI":"10.1109\/RACE.2015.7097281"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"200","DOI":"10.1016\/S0924-4247(98)00009-0","article-title":"Operation of \u03b1 (6H)-SiC pressure sensor at 500 \u00b0C","volume":"66","author":"Okojie","year":"1998","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators A Phys."},{"key":"ref_5","unstructured":"Ziermann, R., von Berg, J., Reichert, W., Obermeier, E., Eickhoff, M., and Krotz, G. (1997, January 16\u201319). A high temperature pressure sensor with\/spl beta\/-SiC piezoresistors on SOI substrates. Proceedings of the 1997 International Conference on Solid State Sensors and Actuators (TRANSDUCERS\u201997), Chicago, IL, USA."},{"key":"ref_6","first-page":"17","article-title":"New harsh environment sensor designs based on silicon carbide","volume":"21","author":"Krotz","year":"1997","journal-title":"MST News"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1139","DOI":"10.1109\/28.62400","article-title":"SiC thin-film thermistors","volume":"26","author":"Nagai","year":"1990","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Ind. Appl."},{"key":"ref_8","first-page":"825","article-title":"Preparation of polycrystalline SiC thin films and its application to resistive sensors","volume":"142","author":"Kamimura","year":"1996","journal-title":"Silicon Carbide Relat. Mater. 1995"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19","DOI":"10.1016\/0925-4005(93)85022-3","article-title":"Gas sensors for high temperature operation based on metal oxide silicon carbide (MOSiC) devices","volume":"15","author":"Arbab","year":"1993","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators B Chem."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"562","DOI":"10.1016\/0925-4005(93)01085-I","article-title":"Evaluation of gas mixtures with high-temperature gas sensors based on silicon carbide","volume":"19","author":"Arbab","year":"1994","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators B Chem."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"165","DOI":"10.1016\/0925-4005(94)01579-7","article-title":"Gas sensitive field effect devices for high temperature","volume":"26","author":"Baranzahi","year":"1995","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators B Chem."},{"key":"ref_12","first-page":"817","article-title":"Silicon carbide-based detection of hydrogen and hydrocarbons","volume":"142","author":"Hunter","year":"1996","journal-title":"Silicon Carbde Relat. Mater. 1995"},{"key":"ref_13","unstructured":"Shields, V., Ryan, M.A., Williams, R.M., Spencer, M.G., Collins, D.M., and Zhang, D. (1995). A Variable Potential Porous Silicon Carbide Hydrocarbon Gas Sensor, NASA."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"568","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2007.891997","article-title":"A SiC MEMS resonant strain sensor for harsh environment applications","volume":"7","author":"Azevedo","year":"2007","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Azevedo, R.G., Zhang, J., Jones, D.G., Myers, D.R., Jog, A.V., Jamshidi, B., Wijesundara, M.B., Maboudian, R., and Pisano, A.P. (2007, January 21\u201325). Silicon carbide coated MEMS strain sensor for harsh environment applications. Proceedings of the IEEE 20th International Conference on Micro Electro Mechanical Systems (MEMS), Hyogo, Japan.","DOI":"10.1109\/MEMSYS.2007.4433166"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jamshidi, B., Azevedo, R.G., Wijesundara, M.B., and Pisano, A.P. (2007, January 28\u201331). Corrosion enhanced capacitive strain gauge at 370 \u00b0C. Proceedings of the 2007 IEEE Sensors, Atlanta, GA, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICSENS.2007.4388522"},{"key":"ref_17","unstructured":"Jamshidi, B. (2008). Poly-Crystalline Silicon Carbide Passivated Capacitive Mems Strain Gauge for Harsh Environments, University of California."},{"key":"ref_18","unstructured":"Brown, T.G. (2003, January 22\u201324). Harsh military environments and microelectromechanical (MEMS) devices. Proceedings of the 2003 IEEE Sensors, Toronto, ON, Canada."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.1016\/S0924-4247(02)00436-3","article-title":"Simulation, fabrication and testing of bulk micromachined 6H-SiC high-g piezoresistive accelerometers","volume":"104","author":"Atwell","year":"2003","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators A Phys."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"144","DOI":"10.3390\/s140100144","article-title":"High-temperature piezoelectric sensing","volume":"14","author":"Jiang","year":"2013","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wijesundara, M., and Azevedo, R. (2011). Silicon Carbide Microsystems for Harsh Environments, Springer Science & Business Media.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4419-7121-0"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"295","DOI":"10.3390\/mi3020295","article-title":"Design issues for low power integrated thermal flow sensors with ultra-wide dynamic range and low insertion loss","volume":"3","author":"Bruschi","year":"2012","journal-title":"Micromachines"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"425","DOI":"10.1049\/el:19740339","article-title":"Integrated silicon anemometer","volume":"10","author":"Middelhoek","year":"1974","journal-title":"Electron. Lett."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"506","DOI":"10.1016\/S0924-4247(97)01529-X","article-title":"Asymmetrical locations of heaters and sensors relative to each other using heater arrays: A novel method for designing multi-range electrocaloric mass-flow sensors","volume":"62","author":"Nguyen","year":"1997","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators A Phys."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1663","DOI":"10.1109\/JMEMS.2015.2470132","article-title":"The piezoresistive effect of SiC for MEMS sensors at high temperatures: A review","volume":"24","author":"Phan","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Microelectromec. Syst."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"249","DOI":"10.1109\/41.915402","article-title":"Review on materials, microsensors, systems and devices for high-temperature and harsh-environment applications","volume":"48","author":"Werner","year":"2001","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"225","DOI":"10.3390\/mi3020225","article-title":"Micromachined flow sensors in biomedical applications","volume":"3","author":"Silvestri","year":"2012","journal-title":"Micromachines"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.1016\/0924-4247(92)80192-6","article-title":"Silicon thermal flow sensors","volume":"30","year":"1992","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators A Phys."},{"key":"ref_29","first-page":"3270","article-title":"Issues and temperature compensation techniques for hot wire thermal flow sensor: A review","volume":"6","author":"Khamshah","year":"2011","journal-title":"Int. J. Phys. Sci."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8776","DOI":"10.1039\/C5TC01650A","article-title":"Graphite on paper as material for sensitive thermoresistive sensors","volume":"3","author":"Dinh","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Mater. Chem. C"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1224","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2005.858924","article-title":"A novel thermal sensor concept for flow direction and flow velocity","volume":"5","author":"Nguyen","year":"2005","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gravenstein, J.S., Jaffe, M.B., Gravenstein, N., and Paulus, D.A. (2011). Capnography, Cambridge University Press.","DOI":"10.1017\/CBO9780511933837"},{"key":"ref_33","first-page":"373","article-title":"On the convection of heat from small cylinders in a stream of fluid: Determination of the convection constants of small platinum wires with applications to hot-wire anemometry","volume":"214","author":"King","year":"1914","journal-title":"Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. Ser. A Contain. Pap. Math. Phys. Character"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"739","DOI":"10.1088\/0022-3735\/19\/9\/019","article-title":"A hot-wire anemometer compensated for ambient temperature variations","volume":"19","author":"Takagi","year":"1986","journal-title":"J. Phys. E Sci. Instrum."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"704","DOI":"10.1063\/1.1685738","article-title":"On Feedback Control Theory for Constant Temperature Hot Wire Anemometers","volume":"43","author":"Freymuth","year":"1972","journal-title":"Rev. Sci. Instrum."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"216","DOI":"10.1109\/JIOT.2014.2319296","article-title":"2-D micromachined thermal wind sensors\u2014A review","volume":"1","author":"Zhu","year":"2014","journal-title":"IEEE Int. Things J."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"954","DOI":"10.1109\/19.948306","article-title":"Hot-wire anemometer with temperature compensation using only one sensor","volume":"50","author":"Ferreira","year":"2001","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Instrum. Meas."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Beeby, S. (2004). MEMS Mechanical Sensors, Artech House.","DOI":"10.1108\/sr.2004.24.3.319.2"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"215401","DOI":"10.1088\/1361-6463\/aa6cd6","article-title":"Solvent-free fabrication of biodegradable hot-film flow sensor for noninvasive respiratory monitoring","volume":"50","author":"Dinh","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Phys. D Appl. Phys."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"314","DOI":"10.4271\/2015-01-0233","article-title":"Thin-Film Air Flow Sensors for Automotive using the MEMS Technologies","volume":"8","author":"Furuichi","year":"2015","journal-title":"SAE Int. J. Passeng. Cars-Electron. Electr. Syst."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7","DOI":"10.1016\/S0955-5986(97)00019-8","article-title":"Micromachined flow sensors\u2014A review","volume":"8","author":"Nguyen","year":"1997","journal-title":"Flow Meas. Instrum."},{"key":"ref_42","unstructured":"Elwenspoek, M., and Wiegerink, R. (2012). Mechanical Microsensors, Springer Science & Business Media."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"282","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sna.2003.10.068","article-title":"Multi-range silicon micromachined flow sensor","volume":"110","author":"Santander","year":"2004","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators A Phys."},{"key":"ref_44","unstructured":"Lei, M.I. (2010). Silicon Carbide High Temperature Thermoelectric Flow Sensor. [Ph.D. Thesis, Case Western Reserve University]."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"417","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sna.2004.04.050","article-title":"Thermal characterisation of a direction dependent flow sensor","volume":"115","year":"2004","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators A Phys."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"055004","DOI":"10.1088\/0960-1317\/23\/5\/055004","article-title":"High-temperature zirconia microthruster with an integrated flow sensor","volume":"23","author":"Lekholm","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Micromech. Microeng."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"065015","DOI":"10.1088\/0960-1317\/22\/6\/065015","article-title":"A highly integratable silicon thermal gas flow sensor","volume":"22","author":"Palmer","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Micromech. Microeng."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5561","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2015.2444798","article-title":"High-Sensitivity Single Thermopile SOI CMOS MEMS Thermal Wall Shear Stress Sensor","volume":"15","author":"Haneef","year":"2015","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"369","DOI":"10.1016\/0924-4247(94)00923-6","article-title":"Multi-parameter detection in fluid flows","volume":"47","author":"Lammerink","year":"1995","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators A Phys."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2062","DOI":"10.1109\/TIM.2011.2115370","article-title":"Flow rate measurement in a high-temperature, radioactive, and corrosive environment","volume":"60","author":"Moazzeni","year":"2011","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Instrum. Meas."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4636","DOI":"10.1016\/j.proeng.2011.08.871","article-title":"RETRACTED: Quick, Temperature Independent Flow Sensor","volume":"15","author":"Ying","year":"2011","journal-title":"Procedia Eng."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sosna, C., Kropp, M., Lang, W., and Buchner, R. (2010, January 1\u20134). Miniaturized thermal flow sensors with through silicon vias for flip-chip packaging. Proceedings of the 2010 IEEE Sensors, Aikoloa, HI, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICSENS.2010.5690057"},{"key":"ref_53","first-page":"1","article-title":"Thermoresistive Effect for Advanced Thermal Sensors: Fundamentals, Design Considerations, and Applications","volume":"PP","author":"Dinh","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Microelectromec. Syst."},{"key":"ref_54","unstructured":"Korvink, J., and Paul, O. (2010). MEMS: A Practical Guide of Design, Analysis, and Applications, Springer Science & Business Media."},{"key":"ref_55","unstructured":"Nguyen, N.T., and Wereley, S.T. (2002). Fundamentals and Applications of Microfluidics, Artech House."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Weide-Zaage, K., and Chrzanowska-Jeske, M. (2016). Semiconductor Devices in Harsh Conditions, CRC Press.","DOI":"10.1201\/9781315368948"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"191","DOI":"10.1016\/S0924-4247(01)00562-3","article-title":"Ge-film resistance and Si-based diode temperature microsensors for cryogenic applications","volume":"92","author":"Boltovets","year":"2001","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators A Phys."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"073504","DOI":"10.1063\/1.4865372","article-title":"Temperature sensor based on 4H-silicon carbide pn diode operational from 20 \u00b0C to 600 \u00b0C","volume":"104","author":"Zhang","year":"2014","journal-title":"Appl. Phys. Lett."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"164","DOI":"10.1016\/S0925-4005(99)00174-4","article-title":"High temperature Pt Schottky diode gas sensors on n-type GaN","volume":"56","author":"Luther","year":"1999","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators B Chem."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1409","DOI":"10.1016\/0038-1101(96)00045-7","article-title":"Status of silicon carbide (SiC) as a wide-bandgap semiconductor for high-temperature applications: A review","volume":"39","author":"Casady","year":"1996","journal-title":"Solid-State Electron."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2329","DOI":"10.1002\/pssa.200925188","article-title":"Extreme temperature 6H-SiC JFET integrated circuit technology","volume":"206","author":"Neudeck","year":"2009","journal-title":"Phys. Status Solidi"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lin, B. (2011). Microfluidics: Technologies and Applications, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-642-23050-9"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"161","DOI":"10.1155\/1989\/31627","article-title":"Thermoresistive thin film flow sensor","volume":"13","author":"Berlicki","year":"1989","journal-title":"Act. Passive Electron. Comp."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Buchner, R., Bhargava, P., Sosna, C., Benecke, W., and Lang, W. (2007, January 21\u201328). Thermoelectric flow sensors with monolithically integrated channel structures for measurements of very small flow rates. Proceedings of the 2007 IEEE Sensors, Atlanta, GA, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICSENS.2007.4388529"},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1114","DOI":"10.1109\/JMEMS.2008.926143","article-title":"Toward flexible thermoelectric flow sensors: A new technological approach","volume":"17","author":"Buchner","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Microelectromec. Syst."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ghodssi, R., and Lin, P. (2011). MEMS Materials and Processes Handbook, Springer Science & Business Media.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-0-387-47318-5"},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sharpe, W.N. (2001). Mechanical Properties of MEMS Materials. The MEMS Handbook, CRC Press.","DOI":"10.1201\/9781420050905.ch3"},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1459","DOI":"10.1016\/j.proche.2009.07.364","article-title":"Thermal flow sensors for harsh environment applications","volume":"1","author":"Billat","year":"2009","journal-title":"Procedia Chem."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8893","DOI":"10.1016\/j.surfcoat.2007.05.007","article-title":"Electrical, mechanical and metal contact properties of polycrystalline 3C-SiC films for MEMS in harsh environments","volume":"201","author":"Zhang","year":"2007","journal-title":"Surf. Coat. Technol."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109","DOI":"10.1016\/S0263-2241(02)00058-1","article-title":"Development of miniaturized semiconductor flow sensors","volume":"33","author":"Kohl","year":"2003","journal-title":"Measurement"},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"32","DOI":"10.1016\/S0924-4247(01)00668-9","article-title":"Anemometer with hot platinum thin film","volume":"94","author":"Mailly","year":"2001","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators A Phys."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"308","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sna.2011.02.010","article-title":"Measurement of reaction heats using a polysilicon-based microcalorimetric sensor","volume":"169","author":"Vereshchagina","year":"2011","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators A Phys."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liu, L., Tang, W., Zheng, B.-X., and Zhang, H.-X. (2011, January 20\u201323). Fabrication and characterization of SiC thin films. Proceedings of the 2011 IEEE International Conference on Nano\/Micro Engineered and Molecular Systems (NEMS), Kaohsiung, Taiwan.","DOI":"10.1109\/NEMS.2011.6017316"},{"key":"ref_74","first-page":"29","article-title":"Oxidation behaviour of silicon carbide\u2014A review","volume":"38","author":"Roy","year":"2014","journal-title":"Rev. Adv. Mater. Sci."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"075008","DOI":"10.1088\/1361-6439\/aa7180","article-title":"Steady-state analytical model of suspended p-type 3C-SiC bridges under consideration of Joule heating","volume":"27","author":"Balakrishnan","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Micromech. Microeng."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"28499","DOI":"10.1038\/srep28499","article-title":"Piezoresistive effect in p-type 3C-SiC at high temperatures characterized using Joule heating","volume":"6","author":"Phan","year":"2016","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_77","unstructured":"Spannhake, J., Helwig, A., M\u00fcller, G., and Doll, T. (2017, September 07). Sic As A High-Performance Material For Microheaters. Available online: http:\/\/www.qucosa.de\/fileadmin\/data\/qucosa\/documents\/2859\/7616.pdf#page=32."},{"key":"ref_78","first-page":"92","article-title":"Thermoelectric materials: Energy conversion between heat and electricity","volume":"1","author":"Zhang","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Mater."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"526","DOI":"10.1016\/S1369-7021(11)70278-4","article-title":"Lead telluride alloy thermoelectrics","volume":"14","author":"LaLonde","year":"2011","journal-title":"Mater. Today"},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cassidy, P.E. (1988). An overview of polymers for harsh environments; aerospace, geothermal and undersea. Adhesives, Sealants, and Coatings for Space and Harsh Environments, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4613-1047-1_18"},{"key":"ref_81","first-page":"227","article-title":"A review of silicon carbide development in MEMS applications","volume":"2","author":"Jiang","year":"2009","journal-title":"Int. J. Comput. Mater. Sci. Surf. Eng."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"153","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2004.04.102","article-title":"Polyimide membrane for micro-heated gas sensor array","volume":"103","author":"Aslam","year":"2004","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators B Chem."},{"key":"ref_83","unstructured":"Buchner, R., Maiwald, M., Sosna, C., Schary, T., Benecke, W., and Lang, W. (2006, January 22\u201326). Miniaturised thermal flow sensors for rough environments. Proceedings of the 19th IEEE International Conference on Micro Electro Mechanical Systems (MEMS 2006), Istanbul, Turkey."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"064004","DOI":"10.1088\/0960-1317\/20\/6\/064004","article-title":"Polymer-based micro flow sensor for dynamical flow measurements in hydraulic systems","volume":"20","author":"Ahrens","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Micromech. Microeng."},{"key":"ref_85","first-page":"219","article-title":"Development of LTCC-materials and Their Applications: An Overview","volume":"38","author":"Kita","year":"2008","journal-title":"Inf. MIDEM"},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"369","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jeurceramsoc.2009.05.023","article-title":"Characterization and improvement of LTCC composite materials for application at elevated temperatures","volume":"30","author":"Bienert","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Eur. Ceram. Soc."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"095013","DOI":"10.1088\/0960-1317\/22\/9\/095013","article-title":"Fabrication of a zirconia MEMS-based microthruster by gel casting on PDMS soft molds","volume":"22","author":"Cheah","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Micromech. Microeng."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"833","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2005.844346","article-title":"Ceramic temperature sensors for harsh environments","volume":"5","author":"Gregory","year":"2005","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"273","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1009978607621","article-title":"Ceramic based resistive sensors","volume":"2","author":"Wang","year":"1998","journal-title":"J. Electroceram."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"159","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sna.2014.09.008","article-title":"Microfabrication of a variable range and multi-directionally sensitive thermal flow sensor","volume":"220","author":"Yarali","year":"2014","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators A Phys."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"73","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sna.2013.12.007","article-title":"A dynamic thermal flow sensor for simultaneous measurement of thermal conductivity and flow velocity of gases","volume":"208","author":"Cubukcu","year":"2014","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators A Phys."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"328","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tsf.2005.01.085","article-title":"Characterization of thermal conductivity in thin film multilayered membranes","volume":"484","author":"Santander","year":"2005","journal-title":"Thin Solid Films"},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3059","DOI":"10.1002\/aic.690431117","article-title":"Micromachined reactors for catalytic partial oxidation reactions","volume":"43","author":"Srinivasan","year":"1997","journal-title":"AIChE J."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1088\/0960-1317\/6\/1\/001","article-title":"LPCVD against PECVD for micromechanical applications","volume":"6","author":"Stoffel","year":"1996","journal-title":"J. Micromech. Microeng."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jing, X., Lu, J., Miao, J., Hans, H., Rahman, H., Pan, S., and Norford, L. (2011, January 5\u20139). An aerodynamically efficient sphere anemometer with integrated hot-film sensors for 2-D environmental airflow monitoring. Proceedings of the 2011 16th International Solid-State Sensors, Actuators and Microsystems Conference (TRANSDUCERS), Beijing, China.","DOI":"10.1109\/TRANSDUCERS.2011.5969146"},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"329","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jfoodeng.2003.09.006","article-title":"The development of an anemometer for industrial bread baking","volume":"63","author":"Therdthai","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Food Eng."},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"De Luca, A., Longobardi, G., and Udrea, F. (2015, January 12\u201314). SOI multidirectional thermoelectric flow sensor for harsh environment applications. Proceedings of the 2015 International Semiconductor Conference (CAS), Sinaia, Romania.","DOI":"10.1109\/SMICND.2015.7355173"},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"262","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sna.2006.02.009","article-title":"A high-temperature thermopile fabrication process for thermal flow sensors","volume":"130","author":"Buchner","year":"2006","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators A Phys."},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1891","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2011.2179934","article-title":"Thermoelectric flow sensor integrated into an inductively powered wireless system","volume":"12","author":"Gould","year":"2012","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"670","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2004.833516","article-title":"SOI CMOS compatible low-power microheater optimization for the fabrication of smart gas sensors","volume":"4","author":"Laconte","year":"2004","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ritterath, M., Voser, P., Dietze, W., Prasser, H.-M., and Paladino, D. (2009, January 5\u201328). Robust thermal flow sensor for a containment test facility. Proceedings of the 2009 IEEE Sensors, Hristchurch, New Zealand.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICSENS.2009.5398436"},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"22","DOI":"10.1016\/S0925-4005(03)00515-X","article-title":"Micro-differential scanning calorimeter for combustible gas sensing","volume":"97","author":"Cavicchi","year":"2004","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators B Chem."},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"210","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sna.2005.04.023","article-title":"A double heater integrated gas flow sensor with thermal feedback","volume":"123","author":"Bruschi","year":"2005","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators A Phys."},{"key":"ref_104","unstructured":"Lyons, C., Friedberger, A., Welser, W., Muller, G., Krotz, G., and Kassing, R. (1998, January 25\u201329). A high-speed mass flow sensor with heated silicon carbide bridges. Proceedings of the 1998 Eleventh Annual International Workshop on; Micro Electro Mechanical Systems (MEMS 98), Heidelberg, Germany."},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"B55","DOI":"10.1149\/2.032404jes","article-title":"Simulation and fabrication of an ultra-low power miniature microbridge thermal conductivity gas sensor","volume":"161","author":"Mahdavifar","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Electrochem. Soc."},{"key":"ref_106","unstructured":"Shim, J.-C., and Chung, G.-S. (2010, January 1\u20134). Fabrication and characteristics of Pt\/ZnO NO sensor integrated SiC micro heater. Proceedings of the 2010 IEEE Sensors, Kona, HI, USA."},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"253","DOI":"10.1016\/S0924-4247(01)00869-X","article-title":"A robust flow sensor for high pressure automotive applications","volume":"97","author":"Schmid","year":"2002","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators A Phys."},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105408","DOI":"10.1088\/0957-0233\/21\/10\/105408","article-title":"Development of a micro liquid-level sensor for harsh environments using a periodic heating technique","volume":"21","author":"Hong","year":"2010","journal-title":"Meas. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1136","DOI":"10.1088\/0022-3735\/9\/12\/033","article-title":"A hot wire sensor for liquid level detection","volume":"9","author":"Cantor","year":"1976","journal-title":"J. Phys. E Sci. Instrum."},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13681","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijhydene.2014.04.026","article-title":"Analysis of thermal balance in high-temperature proton exchange membrane fuel cells with short stacks via in situ monitoring with a flexible micro sensor","volume":"39","author":"Weng","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. J. Hydrog. Energy"},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"267","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sna.2004.01.036","article-title":"Thermal and mechanical analysis of a microreactor for high temperature catalytic gas phase reactions","volume":"112","author":"Tiggelaar","year":"2004","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators A Phys."},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"045006","DOI":"10.1088\/0960-1317\/18\/4\/045006","article-title":"A volumetric flow sensor for automotive injection systems","volume":"18","author":"Schmid","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Micromech. Microeng."},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"540","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mejo.2009.12.005","article-title":"Ultra-high temperature (>300 \u00b0C) suspended thermodiode in SOI CMOS technology","volume":"41","author":"Santra","year":"2010","journal-title":"Microelectron. J."},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"31","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sna.2014.11.023","article-title":"Experimental, analytical and numerical investigation of non-linearity of SOI diode temperature sensors at extreme temperatures","volume":"222","author":"Pathirana","year":"2015","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators A Phys."},{"key":"ref_115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"81","DOI":"10.1016\/S0924-4247(00)00460-X","article-title":"The temperature characteristics of bipolar transistors fabricated in CMOS technology","volume":"87","author":"Wang","year":"2000","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators A Phys."},{"key":"ref_116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"294","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2004.826742","article-title":"Precision temperature measurement using CMOS substrate PNP transistors","volume":"4","author":"Pertijs","year":"2004","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"524","DOI":"10.1109\/TIM.2014.2341371","article-title":"On-chip thermal testing using MOSFETs in weak inversion","volume":"64","author":"Reverter","year":"2015","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Instrum. Meas."},{"key":"ref_118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"234","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sna.2013.08.026","article-title":"MOSFET temperature sensors for on-chip thermal testing","volume":"203","author":"Reverter","year":"2013","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators A Phys."},{"key":"ref_119","unstructured":"Savrun, E. (2002, January 12\u201314). Packaging considerations for very high temperature Microsystems. Proceedings of the 2002 IEEE Sensors, Orlando, FL, USA."},{"key":"ref_120","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gad-el-Hak, M. (2005). MEMS: Applications, CRC Press.","DOI":"10.1201\/9781420036565"},{"key":"ref_121","unstructured":"Gottfried, K., Kriz, J., Leibelt, J., Kaufmann, C., and Gessner, T. (1998, January 22\u201327). High temperature stable metallization schemes for SiC-technology operating in air. Proceedings of the High-Temperature Electronic Materials, Devices and Sensors Conference, San Diego, CA, USA."},{"key":"ref_122","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"873","DOI":"10.4028\/www.scientific.net\/MSF.457-460.873","article-title":"Study of TiW\/Au Thin Films Metallization Stack for High Temperature and Harsh Environment Devices on 6H Silicon Carbide","volume":"457\u2013460","author":"Baeri","year":"2004","journal-title":"Mater. Sci. Forum"},{"key":"ref_123","unstructured":"Ramesham, R., and Ghaffarian, R. (2000, January 21\u201324). Challenges in interconnection and packaging of microelectromechanical systems (MEMS). Proceedings of the 50th 2000 Electronic Components & Technology Conference, Las Vegas, NV, USA."},{"key":"ref_124","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"55","DOI":"10.1088\/0960-1317\/6\/1\/011","article-title":"Protective coatings in harsh environments","volume":"6","author":"Eriksen","year":"1996","journal-title":"J. Micromech. Microeng."},{"key":"ref_125","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"391","DOI":"10.1016\/S0257-8972(98)00596-9","article-title":"Effect of MEMS-compatible thin film hard coatings on the erosion resistance of silicon micromachined atomizers","volume":"108","author":"Rajan","year":"1998","journal-title":"Surf. Coat. Technol."},{"key":"ref_126","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"238","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sna.2013.01.036","article-title":"Lubrication of polycrystalline silicon MEMS via a thin silicon carbide coating","volume":"193","author":"Laboriante","year":"2013","journal-title":"Sen. Actuators A Phys."},{"key":"ref_127","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nguyen, D.-S., Pillatsch, P., Paprotny, I., Wright, P., and White, R. (2015, January 1\u20134). MEMS flow sensors with silicon-carbide erosion resistant coating. Proceedings of the 2015 IEEE SENSORS, Gainesville, FL, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICSENS.2015.7370429"},{"key":"ref_128","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"138","DOI":"10.1007\/s005420100089","article-title":"Sensors and smart electronics in harsh environment applications","volume":"7","author":"Fahrner","year":"2001","journal-title":"Microsyst. Technol."},{"key":"ref_129","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"English, J.M., and Allen, M.G. (1999, January 21). Wireless micromachined ceramic pressure sensors. Proceedings of the Twelfth IEEE International Conference on Micro Electro Mechanical Systems (MEMS\u201999), Orlando, FL, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/MEMSYS.1999.746881"},{"key":"ref_130","unstructured":"English, J.M. (2000). Wireless Micromachined Ceramic Pressure Sensors for High Termperature Environments, Georgia Institute of Technology."},{"key":"ref_131","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Birdsell, E.D., Park, J., and Allen, M.G. (2004, January 11\u201314). Wireless ceramic sensors operating in high temperature environments. Proceedings of the 40th ALAA\/ASME\/SAE\/ASEE Joint Propulsion Conference, Fort Lauderdale, FL, USA.","DOI":"10.2514\/6.2004-3990"},{"key":"ref_132","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Birdsell, E., and Allen, M.G. (2006, January 4\u20138). Wireless chemical sensors for high temperature environments. Proceedings of the Solid-State Sensors, Actuators, and Microsystems Workshop, Hilton Head Island, SC, USA.","DOI":"10.31438\/trf.hh2006.55"},{"key":"ref_133","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"61","DOI":"10.1109\/84.982864","article-title":"A passive humidity monitoring system for in situ remote wireless testing of micropackages","volume":"11","author":"Harpster","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Microelectromec. Syst."},{"key":"ref_134","unstructured":"Hunter, G., Okojie, R., Neudeck, P., Beheim, G., Ponchak, G., Fralick, G., Wrbanek, J., and Chen, L. (2006). High temperature electronics, communications, and supporting technologies for Venus missions. Electr. Electron. Eng., 27\u201330."},{"key":"ref_135","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1660","DOI":"10.1109\/5.704271","article-title":"Micromachined thermally based CMOS microsensors","volume":"86","author":"Baltes","year":"1998","journal-title":"Proc. IEEE"},{"key":"ref_136","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"187","DOI":"10.1088\/0960-1317\/6\/1\/038","article-title":"Packaging of physical sensors for aggressive media applications","volume":"6","author":"Dyrbye","year":"1996","journal-title":"J. Micromech. Microeng."},{"key":"ref_137","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1300","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mejo.2008.08.009","article-title":"Postprocessing, readout and packaging methods for integrated gas flow sensors","volume":"40","author":"Bruschi","year":"2009","journal-title":"Microelectron. J."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/17\/9\/2061\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T18:44:29Z","timestamp":1760208269000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/17\/9\/2061"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2017,9,8]]},"references-count":137,"journal-issue":{"issue":"9","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2017,9]]}},"alternative-id":["s17092061"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s17092061","relation":{"has-preprint":[{"id-type":"doi","id":"10.20944\/preprints201707.0031.v1","asserted-by":"object"}]},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2017,9,8]]}}}