{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,17]],"date-time":"2026-05-17T06:11:27Z","timestamp":1778998287331,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":30,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"11","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2017,11,8]],"date-time":"2017-11-08T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1510099200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100000266","name":"Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["EP\/M01326X\/1"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["EP\/M01326X\/1"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100000266","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Gravimeters are used to measure density anomalies under the ground. They are applied in many different fields from volcanology to oil and gas exploration, but present commercial systems are costly and massive. A new type of gravity sensor has been developed that utilises the same fabrication methods as those used to make mobile phone accelerometers. In this study, we describe the first results of a field-portable microelectromechanical system (MEMS) gravimeter. The stability of the gravimeter is demonstrated through undertaking a multi-day measurement with a standard deviation of     5.58 \u00d7  10  \u2212 6       ms      \u2212 2     . It is then demonstrated that a change in gravitational acceleration of     4.5 \u00d7  10  \u2212 5       ms      \u2212 2      can be measured as the device is moved between the top and the bottom of a 20.7 m lift shaft with a signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) of 14.25. Finally, the device is demonstrated to be stable in a more harsh environment: a     4.5 \u00d7  10  \u2212 4       ms      \u2212 2      gravity variation is measured between the top and bottom of a 275-m hill with an SNR of 15.88. These initial field-tests are an important step towards a chip-sized gravity sensor.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s17112571","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2017,11,8]],"date-time":"2017-11-08T12:38:48Z","timestamp":1510144728000},"page":"2571","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":35,"title":["Field Tests of a Portable MEMS Gravimeter"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"17","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2095-6750","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Richard","family":"Middlemiss","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Physics and Astronomy, University of Glasgow, Kelvin Building, University Avenue, Glasgow G12 8SU, UK"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Steven","family":"Bramsiepe","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Physics and Astronomy, University of Glasgow, Kelvin Building, University Avenue, Glasgow G12 8SU, UK"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Rebecca","family":"Douglas","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Physics and Astronomy, University of Glasgow, Kelvin Building, University Avenue, Glasgow G12 8SU, UK"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"James","family":"Hough","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Physics and Astronomy, University of Glasgow, Kelvin Building, University Avenue, Glasgow G12 8SU, UK"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7402-8530","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Douglas","family":"Paul","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Engineering, University of Glasgow, Rankine Building, Oakfield Avenue, Glasgow G12 8LT, UK"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Sheila","family":"Rowan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Physics and Astronomy, University of Glasgow, Kelvin Building, University Avenue, Glasgow G12 8SU, UK"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Giles","family":"Hammond","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Physics and Astronomy, University of Glasgow, Kelvin Building, University Avenue, Glasgow G12 8SU, UK"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2017,11,8]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Torge, W. (1989). Gravimetry, De Gruyter."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"G1","DOI":"10.1190\/geo2011-0149.1","article-title":"Imaging geologic surfaces by inverting gravity gradient data with depth horizons","volume":"77","author":"Barnes","year":"2012","journal-title":"Geophysics"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"G1","DOI":"10.1190\/geo2013-0394.1","article-title":"Advantages of borehole vector gravity in density imaging","volume":"80","author":"Rim","year":"2015","journal-title":"Geophysics"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1084","DOI":"10.1190\/1.1441723","article-title":"Microgravimetric and gravity gradient techniques for detection of subsurface cavities","volume":"49","author":"Butler","year":"1984","journal-title":"Geophysics"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"433","DOI":"10.1088\/0022-3727\/34\/3\/331","article-title":"A comparison of gravimetric techniques for measuring subsurface void signals","volume":"34","author":"Romaides","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Phys. D Appl. Phys."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"271","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jappgeo.2014.10.011","article-title":"Geophysical mapping of solution and collapse sinkholes","volume":"111","author":"Kaufmann","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Appl. Geophys."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jvolgeores.2017.08.006","article-title":"Volcano Geodesy: Recent developments and future challenges","volume":"344","author":"Pepe","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Volcanol. Geotherm. Res."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"146","DOI":"10.1016\/j.earscirev.2017.04.014","article-title":"The added value of time-variable microgravimetry to the understanding of how volcanoes work","volume":"169","author":"Carbone","year":"2017","journal-title":"Earth-Sci. Rev."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5033","DOI":"10.1002\/2013JB010795","article-title":"Volcanic signatures in time gravity variations during the volcanic unrest on El Hierro (Canary Islands)","volume":"119","author":"Aparicio","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Solid Earth"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"WA3","DOI":"10.1190\/1.2977792","article-title":"4D volcano gravimetry","volume":"73","author":"Battaglia","year":"2008","journal-title":"Geophysics"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2389","DOI":"10.1029\/1999GL011293","article-title":"Gravity and Deformation Measurements","volume":"27","author":"Rymer","year":"2000","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"237","DOI":"10.2478\/v10126-009-0009-1","article-title":"The use of microgravity technique in archaeology: A case study from the St. Nicolas Church in Pukanec, Slovakia","volume":"39","author":"Panisova","year":"2009","journal-title":"Contrib. Geophys. Geodesy"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Van Camp, M. (2005). Uncertainty of absolute gravity measurements. J. Geophys. Res. Solid Earth, 110.","DOI":"10.1029\/2004JB003497"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"383","DOI":"10.1007\/s11214-017-0409-x","article-title":"The Noise Model of the SEIS Seismometer of the InSight Mission to Mars","volume":"211","author":"Mimoun","year":"2017","journal-title":"Space Sci. Rev."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wu, W., Li, Z., Liu, J., Fan, J., and Tu, L. (2017, January 18\u201322). A nano-g MEMS accelerometer for earthquake monitoring. Proceedings of the 19th International Conference on Solid-State Sensors, Actuators and Microsystems (TRANSDUCERS), Kaohsiung, Taiwan.","DOI":"10.1109\/TRANSDUCERS.2017.7994120"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, Z., Wu, W., Zheng, P., Liu, J., Fan, J., and Tu, L. (2016). Novel capacitive sensing system design of a microelectromechanical systems accelerometer for gravity measurement applications. Micromachines, 7.","DOI":"10.3390\/mi7090167"},{"key":"ref_17","unstructured":"Pike, W., Calcutt, S., Standley, I., Mukherjee, A., Temple, J., Warren, T., Charalambous, C., Liu, H., Stott, A., and McClean, J. (2016, January 21\u201325). A silicon seismic package (SSP) for planetary geophysics. Proceedings of the 47th Lunar and Planetary Science Conference, The Woodlands, TX, USA."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1234","DOI":"10.1190\/tle33111234.1","article-title":"A high-sensitivity MEMS-based accelerometer","volume":"33","author":"Mougenot","year":"2014","journal-title":"Lead. Edge"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"283","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sna.2008.03.017","article-title":"In-plane MEMS-based nano-g accelerometer with sub-wavelength optical resonant sensor","volume":"145\u2013146","author":"Krishnamoorthy","year":"2008","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators A"},{"key":"ref_20","unstructured":"Merchant, B.J. (2009, January 10\u201311). MEMS applications in seismology. Proceedings of the Seismic Instrumentation Technology Symposium, Palm Springs, CA, USA."},{"key":"ref_21","unstructured":"Stauffer, J.M. (2004, January 26\u201329). Market Opportunities for Advanced MEMS Accelerometers and Overview of Actual Capabilities vs. Required Specifications. Proceedings of the IEE Xplore: Position Location and Navigation Symposium, Monterey, CA, USA."},{"key":"ref_22","first-page":"1","article-title":"Could MEMS-based accelerometers be used for gravity surveys","volume":"20","author":"Hons","year":"2008","journal-title":"CREWES Res. Rep."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"614","DOI":"10.1038\/nature17397","article-title":"Measurement of the Earth Tides with a MEMS Gravimeter","volume":"531","author":"Middlemiss","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"585","DOI":"10.1038\/531585a","article-title":"Gravity measurements on chips","volume":"531","author":"Rymer","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_25","unstructured":"Middlemiss, R.P. (2016). A Practical MEMS Gravimeter. [Ph.D. Thesis, University of Glasgow]."},{"key":"ref_26","unstructured":"Campsie, P., Hammond, G., Middlemiss, R., Paul, D., and Samarelli, A. (2017). Measurement of Acceleration. (20,170,276,697), U.S. Patent."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bramsiepe, S.G., Middlemiss, R., Douglas, R., Paul, D.J., Loomes, D., and Hammond, G. (arXiv, 2017). A high stability optical shadow sensor with applications for precision accelerometers, arXiv.","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2018.2818066"},{"key":"ref_28","unstructured":"Laermer, F., and Schilp, A. (1996). Method of Anisotropic Etching of Silicon. (Number 5,501,893), U.S. Patent."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Carbone, L., Aston, S., Cutler, R., Freise, A., Greenhalgh, J., Heefner, J., Hoyland, D., Lockerbie, N., Lodhia, D., and Robertson, N. (2012). Sensors and actuators for the Advanced LIGO mirror suspensions. Class. Quantum Gravit., 29.","DOI":"10.1088\/0264-9381\/29\/11\/115005"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"187","DOI":"10.1144\/sjg10030187","article-title":"Lower Carboniferous vulcanicity in the northern part of the Clyde plateau","volume":"39","author":"Whyte","year":"1974","journal-title":"Scott. J. Geol."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/17\/11\/2571\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T18:48:34Z","timestamp":1760208514000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/17\/11\/2571"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2017,11,8]]},"references-count":30,"journal-issue":{"issue":"11","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2017,11]]}},"alternative-id":["s17112571"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s17112571","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2017,11,8]]}}}