{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,18]],"date-time":"2026-01-18T04:07:07Z","timestamp":1768709227562,"version":"3.49.0"},"reference-count":36,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"11","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2017,11,20]],"date-time":"2017-11-20T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1511136000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Spanish National Program for Mobility of Professors and Researchers","award":["PRX17\/00031"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PRX17\/00031"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Bicycle frames made of carbon fibre are extremely popular for high-performance cycling due to the stiffness-to-weight ratio, which enables greater power transfer. However, products manufactured using carbon fibre are sensitive to impact damage. Therefore, intelligent nondestructive evaluation is a required step to prevent failures and ensure a secure usage of the bicycle. This work proposes an inspection method based on active thermography, a proven technique successfully applied to other materials. Different configurations for the inspection are tested, including power and heating time. Moreover, experiments are applied to a real bicycle frame with generated impact damage of different energies. Tests show excellent results, detecting the generated damage during the inspection. When the results are combined with advanced image post-processing methods, the SNR is greatly increased, and the size and localization of the defects are clearly visible in the images.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s17112679","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2017,11,20]],"date-time":"2017-11-20T11:35:45Z","timestamp":1511177745000},"page":"2679","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":21,"title":["Nondestructive Evaluation of Carbon Fiber Bicycle Frames Using Infrared Thermography"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"17","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0551-3203","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Rub\u00e9n","family":"Usamentiaga","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Computer Science and Engineering, University of Oviedo, 33204 Gij\u00f3n, Asturias, Spain"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0198-7439","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Clemente","family":"Ibarra-Castanedo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Computer Vision and Systems Laboratory, Laval University, Quebec City, QC G1V 0A6, Canada"},{"name":"Visiooimage Inc., Infrared Thermography Testing Systems, 2604, Rue Lapointe, Quebec City, QC G1W 1A8, Canada"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7811-388X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Matthieu","family":"Klein","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Visiooimage Inc., Infrared Thermography Testing Systems, 2604, Rue Lapointe, Quebec City, QC G1W 1A8, Canada"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8777-2008","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Xavier","family":"Maldague","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Computer Vision and Systems Laboratory, Laval University, Quebec City, QC G1V 0A6, Canada"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4478-0582","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jeroen","family":"Peeters","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Op3Mech Research Group, University of Antwerp, Groenenborgerlaan 171, B-2020 Antwerp, Belgium"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Alvaro","family":"Sanchez-Beato","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Actia Digital Ventures SRLU (THEBIKESPLACE.COM), 28413 Madrid, Spain"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2017,11,20]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Shull, P.J. (2016). Nondestructive Evaluation: Theory, Techniques, and Applications, CRC Press."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"Hellier, C. (2001). Handbook of Nondestructive Evaluation, McGraw-Hill."},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"Maldague, X.P. (2012). Nondestructive Evaluation of Materials by Infrared Thermography, Springer Science & Business Media."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12305","DOI":"10.3390\/s140712305","article-title":"Infrared thermography for temperature measurement and non-destructive testing","volume":"14","author":"Usamentiaga","year":"2014","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"47","DOI":"10.3166\/qirt.1.47-70","article-title":"Pulsed phase thermography reviewed","volume":"1","author":"Maldague","year":"2004","journal-title":"Quant. Infrared Thermogr. J."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"845","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compstruct.2015.08.119","article-title":"Nondestructive evaluation of carbon fibre reinforced composites with infrared thermography and ultrasonics","volume":"134","author":"Meola","year":"2015","journal-title":"Compos. Struct."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"676","DOI":"10.1016\/j.infrared.2016.04.033","article-title":"Application of thermal wave imaging and phase shifting method for defect detection in Stainless steel","volume":"76","author":"Shrestha","year":"2016","journal-title":"Infrared Phys. Technol."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1845","DOI":"10.2298\/TSCI150307080T","article-title":"Application of pulsed flash thermography method for specific defect estimation in aluminium","volume":"19","year":"2015","journal-title":"Therm. Sci."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6821","DOI":"10.1364\/AO.55.006821","article-title":"Recognition of wall materials through active thermography coupled with numerical simulations","volume":"55","author":"Pietrarca","year":"2016","journal-title":"Appl. Opt."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tran, Q.H., Han, D., Kang, C., Haldar, A., and Huh, J. (2017). Effects of Ambient Temperature and Relative Humidity on Subsurface Defect Detection in Concrete Structures by Active Thermal Imaging. Sensors, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/s17081718"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Santiago Cintr\u00f3n, M., Montalvo, J.G., Von Hoven, T., Rodgers, J.E., Hinchliffe, D.J., Madison, C., Thyssen, G.N., and Zeng, L. (2016). Infrared Imaging of Cotton Fiber Bundles Using a Focal Plane Array Detector and a Single Reflectance Accessory. Fibers, 4.","DOI":"10.3390\/fib4040027"},{"key":"ref_12","unstructured":"Chung, D.D., and Chung, D. (2012). Carbon Fiber Composites, Butterworth-Heinemann."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"681","DOI":"10.1016\/S1359-8368(00)00028-7","article-title":"Impact damage characterisation of carbon fibre\/epoxy composites with multi-layer reinforcement","volume":"31","author":"Sohn","year":"2000","journal-title":"Compos. Part B Eng."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"123","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ndteint.2012.12.011","article-title":"Feature extraction and analysis for automatic characterization of impact damage in carbon fibre composites using active thermography","volume":"54","author":"Usamentiaga","year":"2013","journal-title":"NDT E Int."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"80","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compositesb.2013.09.049","article-title":"Damage mapping of GFRP via electrical resistance measurements using nanocomposite epoxy matrix systems","volume":"65","author":"Viets","year":"2014","journal-title":"Compos. Part B Eng."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bowkett, M., Thanapalan, K., and Williams, J. (2016, January 7\u20138). Review and analysis of failure detection methods of composites materials systems. Proceedings of the 2016 22nd International Conference on Automation and Computing (ICAC), Colchester, UK.","DOI":"10.1109\/IConAC.2016.7604908"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"594","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compscitech.2006.07.033","article-title":"Detection of impact damage in CFRP laminates by means of electrical potential techniques","volume":"67","author":"Angelidis","year":"2007","journal-title":"Compos. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"22","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ndteint.2011.10.002","article-title":"Sizing of impact damages in composite materials using ultrasonic guided waves","volume":"46","author":"Castaings","year":"2012","journal-title":"NDT E Int."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chady, T., Lopato, P., and Szymanik, B. (2012). Terahertz and thermal testing of glass-fibre reinforced composites with impact damages. J. Sens., 2012.","DOI":"10.1155\/2012\/954867"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijimpeng.2013.12.010","article-title":"Infrared thermography to evaluate impact damage in glass\/epoxy with manufacturing defects","volume":"67","author":"Meola","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. J. Impact Eng."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kozak, M.W. (2000). Radiation Protection and Safety in Industrial Radiography, International Atomic Energy Agency.","DOI":"10.1097\/00004032-200005000-00023"},{"key":"ref_22","unstructured":"American Section of the International Association for Testing Materials (ASTM E1933-97) (1997). Standard Test Methods for Measuring and Compensating for Emissivity Using Infrared Imaging Radiometers, ASTM International."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.5670\/oceanog.2016.66","article-title":"True colors of oceanography: Guidelines for effective and accurate colormap selection","volume":"29","author":"Thyng","year":"2016","journal-title":"Oceanography"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2694","DOI":"10.1063\/1.362662","article-title":"Pulse phase infrared thermography","volume":"79","author":"Maldague","year":"1996","journal-title":"J. Appl. Phys."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"521","DOI":"10.1016\/S0263-8223(02)00161-7","article-title":"Principal component thermography for flaw contrast enhancement and flaw depth characterisation in composite structures","volume":"58","author":"Rajic","year":"2002","journal-title":"Compos. Struct."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1337","DOI":"10.1117\/1.1566969","article-title":"Reconstruction and enhancement of active thermographic image sequences","volume":"42","author":"Shepard","year":"2003","journal-title":"Opt. Eng."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"36","DOI":"10.1016\/j.infrared.2013.01.004","article-title":"Automatic detection of impact damage in carbon fibre composites using active thermography","volume":"58","author":"Usamentiaga","year":"2013","journal-title":"Infrared Phys. Technol."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"55","DOI":"10.1080\/17686733.2013.774623","article-title":"A quantitative comparison of stimulation and post-processing thermographic inspection methods applied to aeronautical carbon fibre reinforced polymer","volume":"10","author":"Usamentiaga","year":"2013","journal-title":"Quant. InfraRed Thermogr. J."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"128","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ndteint.2014.06.003","article-title":"Optimization of pulsed thermography inspection by partial least-squares regression","volume":"66","author":"Lopez","year":"2014","journal-title":"NDT E Int."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Balageas, D.L. (2011, January 10). Defense and Illustration of Time-Resolved Pulsed Thermography for NDE. Proceedings of the SPIE 8013, Thermosense: Thermal Infrared Applications XXXIII, Orlando, FL, USA.","DOI":"10.1117\/12.882967"},{"key":"ref_31","unstructured":"American Section of the International Association for Testing Materials (ASTM E2737) (2010). Standard Practice for Digital Detector Array Performance Evaluation and Long-Term Stability, ASTM International."},{"key":"ref_32","first-page":"1","article-title":"Level set methods and fast marching methods","volume":"11","author":"Sethian","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Comput. Inf. Technol."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"661","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ndteint.2010.07.002","article-title":"Infrared thermography processing based on higher-order statistics","volume":"43","author":"Madruga","year":"2010","journal-title":"NDT E Int."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"35","DOI":"10.1023\/B:VLSI.0000028532.53893.82","article-title":"Realization of the contrast limited adaptive histogram equalization (CLAHE) for real-time image enhancement","volume":"38","author":"Reza","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. VLSI Signal Process."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Thompson, D.O., and Chimenti, D.E. (2012). Review of Progress in Quantitative Nondestructive Evaluation, Springer Science & Business Media.","DOI":"10.1063\/1.4716208"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"012084","DOI":"10.1088\/1757-899X\/81\/1\/012084","article-title":"Evaluation of equivalent defect heat generation in carbon epoxy composite under powerful ultrasonic stimulation by using infrared thermography","volume":"Volume 81","author":"Derusova","year":"2015","journal-title":"IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering"}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/17\/11\/2679\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T18:50:26Z","timestamp":1760208626000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/17\/11\/2679"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2017,11,20]]},"references-count":36,"journal-issue":{"issue":"11","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2017,11]]}},"alternative-id":["s17112679"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s17112679","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2017,11,20]]}}}