{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,3]],"date-time":"2026-07-03T16:32:31Z","timestamp":1783096351342,"version":"3.54.6"},"reference-count":52,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"12","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2017,11,23]],"date-time":"2017-11-23T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1511395200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>A study of the random telegraph noise (RTN) of a 1.1 \u03bcm pitch, 8.3 Mpixel CMOS image sensor (CIS) fabricated in a 45 nm backside-illumination (BSI) technology is presented in this paper. A noise decomposition scheme is used to pinpoint the noise source. The long tail of the random noise (RN) distribution is directly linked to the RTN from the pixel source follower (SF). The full 8.3 Mpixels are classified into four categories according to the observed RTN histogram peaks. A theoretical formula describing the RTN as a function of the time difference between the two phases of the correlated double sampling (CDS) is derived and validated by measured data. An on-chip time constant extraction method is developed and applied to the RTN analysis. The effects of readout circuit bandwidth on the settling ratios of the RTN histograms are investigated and successfully accounted for in a simulation using a RTN behavior model.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s17122704","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2017,11,23]],"date-time":"2017-11-23T11:15:47Z","timestamp":1511435747000},"page":"2704","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":19,"title":["Statistical Analysis of the Random Telegraph Noise in a 1.1 \u03bcm Pixel, 8.3 MP CMOS Image Sensor Using On-Chip Time Constant Extraction Method"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"17","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1495-576X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Calvin","family":"Chao","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Taiwan Semiconductor Manufacturing Company, Hsinchu Science Park, Hsinchu 300, Taiwan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Honyih","family":"Tu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Taiwan Semiconductor Manufacturing Company, Hsinchu Science Park, Hsinchu 300, Taiwan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Thomas","family":"Wu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Taiwan Semiconductor Manufacturing Company, Hsinchu Science Park, Hsinchu 300, Taiwan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kuo-Yu","family":"Chou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Taiwan Semiconductor Manufacturing Company, Hsinchu Science Park, Hsinchu 300, Taiwan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Shang-Fu","family":"Yeh","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Taiwan Semiconductor Manufacturing Company, Hsinchu Science Park, Hsinchu 300, Taiwan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Chin","family":"Yin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Taiwan Semiconductor Manufacturing Company, Hsinchu Science Park, Hsinchu 300, Taiwan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Chih-Lin","family":"Lee","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Taiwan Semiconductor Manufacturing Company, Hsinchu Science Park, Hsinchu 300, Taiwan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2017,11,23]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"367","DOI":"10.1080\/00018738900101122","article-title":"Noise in solid-state microstructures: A new perspective on individual defects, interface states and low-frequency (1\/f) noise","volume":"38","author":"Kirton","year":"1989","journal-title":"Adv. Phys."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1217","DOI":"10.1109\/16.24373","article-title":"An automated system for measurement of random telegraph noise in MOSFE","volume":"36","author":"Hung","year":"1989","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Electron Devices"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1161","DOI":"10.1109\/16.293343","article-title":"Random telegraph signals in deep submicron n-MOSFET\u2019s","volume":"41","author":"Shi","year":"1994","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Electron Devices"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"573","DOI":"10.1016\/S0026-2714(02)00025-2","article-title":"Electrical noise and RTS fluctuations in advanced CMOS devices","volume":"42","author":"Ghibaudo","year":"2002","journal-title":"Microelectron. Reliab."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"136","DOI":"10.1016\/S0921-5107(01)00963-1","article-title":"Random telegraph signal: A local probe for single point defect studies in solid-state devices","volume":"91\u201392","author":"Simoen","year":"2002","journal-title":"Mater. Sci. Eng."},{"key":"ref_6","first-page":"3","article-title":"Random telegraph noise: From a device physicist\u2019s dream to a designer\u2019s nightmare","volume":"39","author":"Simoen","year":"2011","journal-title":"Electrochem. Soc. Trans."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1224","DOI":"10.1109\/TNANO.2010.2042964","article-title":"Scaling rules for telegraph noise","volume":"10","author":"Walczak","year":"2011","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Nanotechnol."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ackerson, K., Musante, C., Gambino, J., Ellis-Monaghan, J., Maynard, D., Rassel, R.J., Ogg, K., and Jaffe, M. (2008, January 5\u20137). Characterization of \u201cblinking pixels\u201d in CMOS image sensors. Proceedings of the 2008 IEEE Advanced Semiconductor Manufacturing Conference (ASMC), Cambridge, MA, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/ASMC.2008.4529048"},{"key":"ref_9","unstructured":"Peters, I., Bogaart, E., Manoury, E.-J., Mierop, A., and Bosiers, J. (2011, January 8\u201311). Analysis of blinking pixels in CCD imagers with and without surface pinning. Proceedings of the 2011 IEEE International Image Sensor Workshop (IISW), Hokkaido, Japan."},{"key":"ref_10","unstructured":"Mori, Y., Ohyu, K., Okonogi, K., and Yamada, R.-I. (2005, January 5\u20137). The origin of variable retention time in DRAM. Proceedings of the 2005 IEEE International Electron Devices Meeting (IEDM), Washington, DC, USA."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1741","DOI":"10.1109\/TED.2011.2126046","article-title":"Characterization of an oxide trap leading to random telegraph noise in gate-induced drain leakage current of DRAM cell transistors","volume":"58","author":"Oh","year":"2011","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Electron Devices"},{"key":"ref_12","unstructured":"Takeuchi, K., Nagumo, T., and Hase, T. (2011, January 15\u201317). Comprehensive SRAM design methodology for RTN reliability. Proceedings of the 2011 IEEE Symposium on VLSI Circuits, Kyoto, Japan."},{"key":"ref_13","unstructured":"Toh, S.O., Liu, T.-J.K., and Nikoli\u0107, B. (2011, January 15\u201317). Impact of random telegraph signaling noise on SRAM stability. Proceedings of the 2011 IEEE Symposium on VLSI Circuits, Kyoto, Japan."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Miki, H., Osabe, T., Tega, N., Kotabe, A., Kurata, H., Tokami, K., Ikeda, Y., Kamohara, S., and Yamada, R. (2007, January 15\u201319). Quantitative analysis of random telegraph signals as fluctuations of threshold voltages in scaled flash memory cells. Proceedings of the 2007 IEEE International Reliability Physics Symposium (IRPS), Phoenix, AZ, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/RELPHY.2007.369864"},{"key":"ref_15","unstructured":"Kang, D., Lee, S., Park, H.-M., Lee, D.-J., Kim, J., Seo, J., Lee, C., Song, C., Lee, C.-S., and Shin, H. (2011, January 15\u201317). A new approach of NAND flash cell trap analysis using RTN characteristics. Proceedings of the 2011 IEEE Symposium on VLSI Technology, Kyoto, Japan."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Matsumoto, T., Kobayashi, K., and Onodera, H. (2012, January 10\u201313). Impact of random telegraph noise on CMOS logic delay uncertainty under low voltage operation. Proceedings of the 2012 IEEE International Electron Devices Meeting (IEDM), San Francisco, CA, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/IEDM.2012.6479104"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1725","DOI":"10.1109\/TED.2014.2368191","article-title":"Impacts of random telegraph noise (RTN) on digital circuits","volume":"62","author":"Luo","year":"2015","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Electron Devices"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tega, N., Miki, H., Ren, Z., D\u2019Emic, C.P., Zhu, Y., Frank, D.J., Guillorn, M.A., Park, D.G., Haensch, W., and Torii, K. (2011, January 10\u201314). Impact of HK\/MG stacks and future device scaling on RTN. Proceedings of the 2011 IEEE International Reliability Physics Symposium (IRPS), Monterey, CA, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/IRPS.2011.5784546"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dongaonkar, S., Giles, M.D., Kornfeld, A., Grossnickle, B., and Yoon, J. (2016, January 14\u201316). Random telegraph noise (RTN) in 14 nm logic technology: High volume data extraction and analysis. Proceedings of the 2016 IEEE Symposium on VLSI Technology, Honolulu, HI, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/VLSIT.2016.7573424"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"187","DOI":"10.1117\/12.512969","article-title":"Source follower noise limitations in CMOS active pixel sensors","volume":"5251","author":"Findlater","year":"2004","journal-title":"Proc. SPIE"},{"key":"ref_21","unstructured":"Kolhatkar, J.S., Hoekstra, E., Salm, C., van der Wel, A.P., Klumperink, E.A.M., Schmitz, J., and Wallinga, H. (2004, January 13\u201315). Modeling or RTS noise in MOSFETs under steady-state and large-signal excitation. Proceedings of the 2004 IEEE International Electron Devices Meeting (IEDM), San Francisco, CA, USA."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hoekstra, E. (2005, January 21\u201324). Large signal excitation measurement techniques for RTS noise in MOSFETs. Proceedings of the 2005 IEEE EUROCON, Serbia and Montenegro, Belgrade.","DOI":"10.1109\/EURCON.2005.1630344"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Leyris, C., Vildeuil, J.C., Roy, F., Martinez, F., Valenza, M., and Hoffmann, A. (2006, January 2\u20134). Response of correlated double sampling CMOS imager circuit to random telegraph signal noise. Proceedings of the 2006 IEEE International Caribbean Conference on Devices, Circuits and Systems (ICCDCS), Playa del Carmen, Mexico.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICCDCS.2006.250845"},{"key":"ref_24","first-page":"743907","article-title":"Fundamental performance differences between CMOS and CCD imagers; Part I","volume":"6276","author":"Janesick","year":"2006","journal-title":"Proc. SPIE"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Janesick, J., Pinter, J., Potter, R., Elliott, T., Andrews, J., Tower, J., Grygon, M., and Keller, D. (2010). Fundamental performance differences between CMOS and CCD imagers; Part IV. Proc. SPIE, 7742.","DOI":"10.1117\/12.862491"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, X., Rao, P.R., Mierop, A., and Theuwissen, A.J.P. (2006, January 11\u201313). Random telegraph signal in CIS pixels. Proceedings of the 2006 IEEE International Electron Devices Meeting (IEDM), San Francisco, CA, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/IEDM.2006.346973"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, X., Snoeij, M.F., Rao, P.R., Mierop, A., and Theuwissen, A.J.P. (2008, January 3\u20137). A CMOS image sensor with a buried-channel source follower. Proceedings of the 2008 IEEE International Solid-State Circuits Conference (ISSCC), San Francisco, CA, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/ISSCC.2008.4523057"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2390","DOI":"10.1109\/TED.2009.2030600","article-title":"A CMOS image sensor with in-pixel buried-channel source follower and optimized row selector","volume":"56","author":"Chen","year":"2009","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Electron Devices"},{"key":"ref_29","unstructured":"Martin-Gonthier, P., and Magnan, P. (2009, January 22\u201324). Low-frequency noise impact on CMOS Image sensors. Proceedings of the 24th Conference on Design of Circuits and Integrated Systems (DCIS), Zaragoza, Spain."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Martin-Gonthier, P., and Magnan, P. (2009, January 13\u201316). RTS noise impact in CIS readout circuit. Proceedings of the 2009 IEEE 16th International Conference on Electronics, Circuits and Systems (ICECS), Hammamet, Tunisia.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICECS.2009.5410825"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1323","DOI":"10.1049\/el.2010.1767","article-title":"Custom transistor layout design techniques for random telegraph signal noise reduction in CIS","volume":"46","author":"Havard","year":"2010","journal-title":"Electron. Lett."},{"key":"ref_32","unstructured":"Abe, K., Sugawa, S., Kuroda, R., Watabe, S., Miyamoto, N., Teramoto, A., Ohmi, T., Kamata, T., and Shibusawa, K. (2007, January 6\u201310). Analysis of source follower random telegraph signal using nMOS and pMOS array TEG. Proceedings of the 2007 IEEE International Image Sensor Workshop (IISW), Ogunquit, ME, USA."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"04DC06.1","DOI":"10.1143\/JJAP.49.04DC06","article-title":"Analysis of hundreds of time constant ratios and amplitudes of random telegraph signal with very large scale array test pattern","volume":"49","author":"Fujisawa","year":"2010","journal-title":"Jpn. J. Appl. Phys."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"04DC07.1","DOI":"10.1143\/JJAP.49.04DC07","article-title":"Experimental investigation of effect of channel doping concentration on random telegraph signal noise","volume":"49","author":"Abe","year":"2010","journal-title":"Jpn. J. Appl. Phys."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yonezawa, A., Teramoto, A., Kuroda, R., Suzuki, H., Sugawa, S., and Ohmi, T. (2012, January 15\u201319). Statistical analysis of random telegraph noise reduction effect by separating channel from the interface. Proceedings of the 2012 IEEE International Reliability Physics Symposium (IRPS), Anaheim, CA, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/IRPS.2012.6241809"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3555","DOI":"10.1109\/TED.2013.2278980","article-title":"A statistical evaluation of random telegraph noise of in-pixel source follower equivalent surface and buried channel transistors","volume":"60","author":"Kuroda","year":"2013","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Electron Devices"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"04ECI9.1","DOI":"10.7567\/JJAP.53.04EC19","article-title":"Extraction of time constants ratio over nine orders of magnitude for understanding random telegraph noise in MOSFETs","volume":"53","author":"Obara","year":"2014","journal-title":"Jpn. J. Appl. Phys."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Obara, T., Teramoto, A., Yonezawa, A., Kuroda, R., Sugawa, S., and Ohmi, T. (2014, January 1\u20135). Analyzing correlation between multiple traps in RTN characteristics. Proceedings of the 2014 IEEE International Reliability Physics Symposium (IRPS), Waikoloa, HI, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/IRPS.2014.6860644"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kuroda, R., Teramoto, A., and Sugawa, S. (2016, January 28\u201331). Random telegraph noise measurement and analysis based on arrayed test circuit toward high S\/N CMOS image sensors. Proceedings of the 2016 IEEE 29th International Conference on Microelectronic Test Structures (ICMTS), Yokohama, Japan.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICMTS.2016.7476172"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Realov, S., and Shepard, K.L. (2010, January 6\u20138). Random telegraph noise in 45-nm CMOS: Analysis using an on-chip test and measurement system. Proceedings of the 2010 IEEE International Electron Devices Meeting (IEDM), San Francisco, CA, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/IEDM.2010.5703436"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nagumo, T., Takeuchi, K., Hase, T., and Hayashi, Y. (2010, January 6\u20138). Statistical characterization of trap position, energy, amplitude and time constants by RTN measurement of multiple individual traps. Proceedings of the 2010 IEEE International Electron Devices Meeting (IEDM), San Francisco, CA, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/IEDM.2010.5703437"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1716","DOI":"10.1109\/TED.2013.2254118","article-title":"Analysis of random telegraph noise in 45-nm CMOS using on-chip characterization system","volume":"60","author":"Realov","year":"2013","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Electron Devices"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chen, J., Higashi, Y., Kato, K., and Mitani, Y. (2014, January 9\u201312). Further understandings on random telegraph signal noise through comprehensive studies on large time constant variation and its strong correlations to thermal activation energies. Proceedings of the 2014 IEEE Symposium on VLSI Technology, Honolulu, HI, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/VLSIT.2014.6894418"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"79","DOI":"10.1109\/JEDS.2016.2623799","article-title":"CMOS image sensor random telegraph noise time constant extraction from correlated to uncorrelated double sampling","volume":"5","author":"Chao","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEEE J. Electron Devices Soc."},{"key":"ref_45","unstructured":"Chao, C.Y.-P., Tu, H., Wu, T., Chou, K.-Y., Yeh, S.-F., and Hsueh, F.-L. (June, January 30). Random Telegraph Noise Pixel Classification and Time Constant Extraction for a 1.1 \u00b5m Pitch 8.3 MP CMOS Image Sensor. Proceedings of the 2017 IEEE International Image Sensor Workshop (IISW), Hiroshima, Japan."},{"key":"ref_46","unstructured":"Kuroda, R., Teramoto, A., and Sugawa, S. (June, January 30). Impact of random telegraph noise with various time constants and number of states in CMOS image sensors. Proceedings of the 2017 IEEE International Image Sensor Workshop (IISW), Hiroshima, Japan."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.1109\/JEDS.2014.2306412","article-title":"A review of the pinned photodiode for CCD and CMOS image sensors","volume":"2","author":"Fossum","year":"2014","journal-title":"IEEE J. Electron Devices Soc."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Janesick, J. (2007). Photon Transfer: DN\u2192\u03bb, SPIE Press. Chapters 4 and 5.","DOI":"10.1117\/3.725073"},{"key":"ref_49","unstructured":"Walck, C. (2007). Chapter 15 Extreme Value Distribution. Hand-Book on Statistical Distributions for Experimentalists, University of Stockholm. 10th Revision; Internal Report SUF-PFY\/96-01."},{"key":"ref_50","unstructured":"Martin, S., Li, G., Worley, E., and White, J. (1996, January 24\u201326). Modeling the bias and scaling dependence of drain current fluctuations due to single carrier trapping in submicron MOSFET\u2019s. Proceedings of the Digest of the IEEE 1996 54th Annual Device Research Conference (DRC), Santa Barbara, CA, USA."},{"key":"ref_51","unstructured":"Snoeij, M.F., van der Wel, A.P., Theuwissen, A.J.P., and Huijsing, J.H. (2005, January 9\u201311). The effect of switched-biasing on 1\/f noise in CMOS imager front-ends. Proceedings of the 2005 IEEE Workshop on CCDs and Advanced Image Sensors, Karuizawa, Japan."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"776","DOI":"10.1109\/LED.2011.2127442","article-title":"Novel readout circuit architecture for CMOS image sensors minimizing RTS noise","volume":"32","author":"Magnan","year":"2011","journal-title":"IEEE Electron Device Lett."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/17\/12\/2704\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T18:50:58Z","timestamp":1760208658000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/17\/12\/2704"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2017,11,23]]},"references-count":52,"journal-issue":{"issue":"12","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2017,12]]}},"alternative-id":["s17122704"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s17122704","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2017,11,23]]}}}