{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,2]],"date-time":"2026-04-02T15:31:47Z","timestamp":1775143907458,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":94,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"12","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2017,12,13]],"date-time":"2017-12-13T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1513123200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Small, compact and embedded sensors are a pervasive technology in everyday life for a wide number of applications (e.g., wearable devices, domotics, e-health systems, etc.). In this context, wireless transmission plays a key role, and among available solutions, Bluetooth Low Energy (BLE) is gaining more and more popularity. BLE merges together good performance, low-energy consumption and widespread diffusion. The aim of this work is to review the main methodologies adopted to investigate BLE performance. The first part of this review is an in-depth description of the protocol, highlighting the main characteristics and implementation details. The second part reviews the state of the art on BLE characteristics and performance. In particular, we analyze throughput, maximum number of connectable sensors, power consumption, latency and maximum reachable range, with the aim to identify what are the current limits of BLE technology. The main results can be resumed as follows: throughput may theoretically reach the limit of ~230 kbps, but actual applications analyzed in this review show throughputs limited to ~100 kbps; the maximum reachable range is strictly dependent on the radio power, and it goes up to a few tens of meters; the maximum number of nodes in the network depends on connection parameters, on the network architecture and specific device characteristics, but it is usually lower than 10; power consumption and latency are largely modeled and analyzed and are strictly dependent on a huge number of parameters. Most of these characteristics are based on analytical models, but there is a need for rigorous experimental evaluations to understand the actual limits.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s17122898","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2017,12,14]],"date-time":"2017-12-14T04:30:55Z","timestamp":1513225855000},"page":"2898","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":208,"title":["Performance Evaluation of Bluetooth Low Energy: A Systematic Review"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"17","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5259-8145","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jacopo","family":"Tosi","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"NeXT: Neurophysiology and Neuroengineering of Human-Technology Interaction Research Unit, School of Medicine, Universit\u00e0 Campus Bio-Medico di Roma, 00128 Rome, Italy"},{"name":"Unit of Biomedical Robotics and Biomicrosystems, School of Engineering, Universit\u00e0 Campus Bio-Medico di Roma, 00128 Rome, Italy"}]},{"given":"Fabrizio","family":"Taffoni","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"NeXT: Neurophysiology and Neuroengineering of Human-Technology Interaction Research Unit, School of Medicine, Universit\u00e0 Campus Bio-Medico di Roma, 00128 Rome, Italy"},{"name":"Unit of Biomedical Robotics and Biomicrosystems, School of Engineering, Universit\u00e0 Campus Bio-Medico di Roma, 00128 Rome, Italy"}]},{"given":"Marco","family":"Santacatterina","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"STMicroelectronics, 20864 Agrate Brianza (MB), Italy"}]},{"given":"Roberto","family":"Sannino","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"STMicroelectronics, 20864 Agrate Brianza (MB), Italy"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0240-1265","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Domenico","family":"Formica","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"NeXT: Neurophysiology and Neuroengineering of Human-Technology Interaction Research Unit, School of Medicine, Universit\u00e0 Campus Bio-Medico di Roma, 00128 Rome, Italy"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2017,12,13]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"457","DOI":"10.1177\/193229681000400227","article-title":"Bluetooth Low Energy: Wireless Connectivity for Medical Monitoring","volume":"4","author":"Omre","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Diabetes Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1532","DOI":"10.1109\/JBHI.2015.2445783","article-title":"Design and Evaluation of an Intelligent Remote Tidal Volume Variability Monitoring System in E-Health Applications","volume":"19","author":"Fekr","year":"2015","journal-title":"IEEE J. Biomed. Health Inform."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fafoutis, X., Vafeas, A., Janko, B., Sherratt, R.S., Pope, J., Elsts, A., Mellios, E., Hilton, G., Oikonomou, G., and Piechocki, R. (2017). Designing Wearable Sensing Platforms for Healthcare in a Residential Environment. EAI Endorsed Trans. Pervasive Health Technol., 3.","DOI":"10.4108\/eai.7-9-2017.153063"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"391","DOI":"10.1109\/TBCAS.2010.2081363","article-title":"A 2.4-GHz BAW-Based Transceiver for Wireless Body Area Networks","volume":"4","author":"Contaldo","year":"2010","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Biomed. Circuits Syst."},{"key":"ref_5","unstructured":"Park, Y.J., and Cho, H.S. (2013, January 14\u201316). Transmission of ECG data with the patch-type ECG sensor system using Bluetooth Low Energy. Proceedings of the 2013 International Conference on ICT Convergence (ICTC), Jeju, Korea."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1112","DOI":"10.1109\/TBCAS.2016.2519523","article-title":"Wearable Noncontact Armband for Mobile ECG Monitoring System","volume":"10","author":"Rachim","year":"2016","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Biomed. Circuits Syst."},{"key":"ref_7","unstructured":"Liu, G., and Yang, H.Y. (2013, January 15\u201317). Design and implementation of a Bluetooth 4.0-based heart rate monitor system on iOS platform. Proceedings of the 2013 International Conference on Communications, Circuits and Systems (ICCCAS), Chengdu, China."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chan, A.M., Selvaraj, N., Ferdosi, N., and Narasimhan, R. (2013, January 3\u20137). Wireless patch sensor for remote monitoring of heart rate, respiration, activity, and falls. Proceedings of the 2013 35th Annual International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society (EMBC), Osaka, Japan.","DOI":"10.1109\/EMBC.2013.6610948"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kuwabara, K., Higuchi, Y., Ogasawara, T., Koizumi, H., and Haga, T. (2014, January 26\u201330). Wearable blood flowmeter appcessory with low-power laser Doppler signal processing for daily-life healthcare monitoring. Proceedings of the 2014 36th Annual International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society, Chicago, IL, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/EMBC.2014.6945063"},{"key":"ref_10","first-page":"8338","article-title":"Design Considerations for Wireless Acquisition of Multichannel sEMG Signals in Prosthetic Hand Control","volume":"16","author":"Brunelli","year":"2016","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Amaro, J.P., Patr\u00e3o, S., Moita, F., and Roseiro, L. (2017, January 16\u201318). Bluetooth low energy profile for MPU9150 IMU data transfers. Proceedings of the 2017 IEEE 5th Portuguese Meeting on Bioengineering (ENBENG), Coimbra, Portugal.","DOI":"10.1109\/ENBENG.2017.7889431"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"267","DOI":"10.1109\/MCOM.2015.7010544","article-title":"On the potential of bluetooth low energy technology for vehicular applications","volume":"53","author":"Lin","year":"2015","journal-title":"IEEE Commun. Mag."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Xia, K., Wang, H., Wang, N., Yu, W., and Zhou, T. (2016, January 22\u201325). Design of automobile intelligence control platform based on Bluetooth low energy. Proceedings of the 2016 IEEE Region 10 Conference (TENCON), Singapore.","DOI":"10.1109\/TENCON.2016.7848552"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"51","DOI":"10.1016\/j.comcom.2016.03.004","article-title":"BlueVoice: Voice communications over Bluetooth Low Energy in the Internet of Things scenario","volume":"89\u201390","author":"Gentili","year":"2016","journal-title":"Comput. Commun."},{"key":"ref_15","unstructured":"Luan, S., Gude, D., Prakash, P., and Warren, S. (2014, January 26\u201330). A paraeducator glove for counting disabled-child behaviors that incorporates a Bluetooth Low Energy wireless link to a smart phone. Proceedings of the 2014 36th Annual International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society, Chicago, IL, USA."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yoon, P.K., Zihajehzadeh, S., Kang, B.S., and Park, E.J. (2015, January 25\u201329). Adaptive Kalman filter for indoor localization using Bluetooth Low Energy and inertial measurement unit. Proceedings of the 2015 37th Annual International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society (EMBC), Milan, Italy.","DOI":"10.1109\/EMBC.2015.7318489"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sherratt, R.S., Janko, B., Hui, T., Harwin, W., and Diaz-Sanchez, D. (2017, January 8\u201310). Dictionary memory based software architecture for distributed Bluetooth Low Energy host controllers enabling high coverage in consumer residential healthcare environments. Proceedings of the 2017 IEEE International Conference on Consumer Electronics (ICCE), Las Vegas, NV, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICCE.2017.7889373"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2988","DOI":"10.1109\/JSAC.2015.2481203","article-title":"A Novel Energy Management Approach for Smart Homes Using Bluetooth Low Energy","volume":"33","author":"Collotta","year":"2015","journal-title":"IEEE J. Sel. Areas Commun."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11916","DOI":"10.3390\/en81011916","article-title":"A Solution Based on Bluetooth Low Energy for Smart Home Energy Management","volume":"8","author":"Collotta","year":"2015","journal-title":"Energies"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"112","DOI":"10.1109\/TGCN.2017.2671407","article-title":"An Innovative Approach for Forecasting of Energy Requirements to Improve a Smart Home Management System Based on BLE","volume":"1","author":"Collotta","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Green Commun. Netw."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tian, J., Liu, J., Liang, S., Ning, Y., Li, H., and Zhao, G. (2016, January 6\u201310). Wireless transmission system for motion sensing game controller based on low power Bluetooth technology. Proceedings of the 2016 IEEE 13th International Conference on Signal Processing (ICSP), Chengdu, China.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICSP.2016.7878040"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Karani, R., Dhote, S., Khanduri, N., Srinivasan, A., Sawant, R., Gore, G., and Joshi, J. (2016, January 16\u201318). Implementation and design issues for using Bluetooth low energy in passive keyless entry systems. Proceedings of the 2016 IEEE Annual India Conference (INDICON), Bangalore, India.","DOI":"10.1109\/INDICON.2016.7838978"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Koodtalang, W., and Sangsuwan, T. (2016, January 24\u201327). Improving motorcycle anti-theft system with the use of Bluetooth Low Energy 4.0. Proceedings of the 2016 International Symposium on Intelligent Signal Processing and Communication Systems (ISPACS), Phuket, Thailand.","DOI":"10.1109\/ISPACS.2016.7824705"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4225","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2016.2594210","article-title":"Sensing the Crowds Using Bluetooth Low Energy Tags","volume":"4","author":"Basalamah","year":"2016","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"244","DOI":"10.1109\/JIOT.2015.2506258","article-title":"An Indoor Location-Aware System for an IoT-Based Smart Museum","volume":"3","author":"Alletto","year":"2016","journal-title":"IEEE Int. Things J."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zou, H., Jiang, H., Luo, Y., Zhu, J., Lu, X., and Xie, L. (2016). BlueDetect: An iBeacon-Enabled Scheme for Accurate and Energy-Efficient Indoor-Outdoor Detection and Seamless Location-Based Service. Sensors, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/s16020268"},{"key":"ref_27","unstructured":"Lin, X.Y., Ho, T.W., Fang, C.C., Yen, Z.S., Yang, B.J., and Lai, F. (2015, January 25\u201329). A mobile indoor positioning system based on iBeacon technology. Proceedings of the 2015 37th Annual International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society (EMBC), Milan, Italy."},{"key":"ref_28","first-page":"5066","article-title":"Modeling of human movement monitoring using Bluetooth Low Energy technology","volume":"2015","author":"Mokhtari","year":"2015","journal-title":"Conf. Proc. IEEE Eng. Med. Biol. Soc."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ozer, A., and John, E. (2016, January 15\u201317). Improving the Accuracy of Bluetooth Low Energy Indoor Positioning System Using Kalman Filtering. Proceedings of the 2016 International Conference on Computational Science and Computational Intelligence (CSCI), Las Vegas, NV, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/CSCI.2016.0041"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Peng, Y., Fan, W., Dong, X., and Zhang, X. (2016, January 18\u201321). An Iterative Weighted KNN (IW-KNN) Based Indoor Localization Method in Bluetooth Low Energy (BLE) Environment. Proceedings of the 2016 International IEEE Conferences on Ubiquitous Intelligence Computing, Advanced and Trusted Computing, Scalable Computing and Communications, Cloud and Big Data Computing, Internet of People, and Smart World Congress (UIC\/ATC\/ScalCom\/CBDCom\/IoP\/SmartWorld), Toulouse, France.","DOI":"10.1109\/UIC-ATC-ScalCom-CBDCom-IoP-SmartWorld.2016.0127"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Viswanathan, S., and Srinivasan, S. (2015, January 1\u20134). Improved path loss prediction model for short range indoor positioning using bluetooth low energy. Proceedings of the 2015 IEEE SENSORS, Busan, Korea.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICSENS.2015.7370397"},{"key":"ref_32","unstructured":"Kotanen, A., Hannikainen, M., Leppakoski, H., and Hamalainen, T.D. (2003, January 28\u201330). Experiments on local positioning with Bluetooth. Proceedings of the International Conference on Information Technology: Coding and Computing, Las Vegas, NV, USA."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bae, H., Oh, J., Lee, K., and Oh, J.H. (2016, January 3\u20137). Low-cost indoor positioning system using BLE (bluetooth low energy) based sensor fusion with constrained extended Kalman Filter. Proceedings of the 2016 IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Biomimetics (ROBIO), Qingdao, China.","DOI":"10.1109\/ROBIO.2016.7866445"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2636","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2017.2672556","article-title":"Location-Aware Speakers for the Virtual Reality Environments","volume":"5","author":"Lee","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Apoorv, R., and Mathur, P. (2016, January 22\u201325). Smart attendance management using Bluetooth Low Energy and Android. Proceedings of the 2016 IEEE Region 10 Conference (TENCON), Singapore.","DOI":"10.1109\/TENCON.2016.7848166"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Filippoupolitis, A., Oliff, W., and Loukas, G. (2016, January 14\u201316). Bluetooth Low Energy Based Occupancy Detection for Emergency Management. Proceedings of the 2016 15th International Conference on Ubiquitous Computing and Communications and 2016 International Symposium on Cyberspace and Security (IUCC-CSS), Granada, Spain.","DOI":"10.1109\/IUCC-CSS.2016.013"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kumar, B.G.A., Bhagyalakshmi, K.C., Lavanya, K., and Gowranga, K.H. (2016, January 20\u201321). A Bluetooth low energy based beacon system for smart short range surveillance. Proceedings of the 2016 IEEE International Conference on Recent Trends in Electronics, Information Communication Technology (RTEICT), Bangalore, India.","DOI":"10.1109\/RTEICT.2016.7808018"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6591","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2016.2615863","article-title":"Discovering Co-Located Walking Groups of People Using iBeacon Technology","volume":"4","author":"Varela","year":"2016","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"510","DOI":"10.1109\/JSAC.2016.2525418","article-title":"Internet of Things in the 5G Era: Enablers, Architecture, and Business Models","volume":"34","author":"Palattella","year":"2016","journal-title":"IEEE J. Sel. Areas Commun."},{"key":"ref_40","unstructured":"Wang, H., Xi, M., Liu, J., and Chen, C. (2013, January 27\u201330). Transmitting IPv6 packets over Bluetooth low energy based on BlueZ. Proceedings of the 2013 15th International Conference on Advanced Communication Technology (ICACT), PyeongChang, Korea."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kushalnagar, N., Montenegro, G., and Schumacher, C. (2017, December 12). IPv6 over Low-Power Wireless Personal Area Networks (6LoWPANs): Overview, Assumptions, Problem Statement, and Goals, August 2007. Available online: https:\/\/tools.ietf.org\/html\/rfc4919.","DOI":"10.17487\/rfc4919"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Raza, S., Misra, P., He, Z., and Voigt, T. (2015, January 19\u201321). Bluetooth smart: An enabling technology for the Internet of Things. Proceedings of the 2015 IEEE 11th International Conference on Wireless and Mobile Computing, Networking and Communications (WiMob), Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates.","DOI":"10.1109\/WiMOB.2015.7347955"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tabish, R., Mnaouer, A.B., Touati, F., and Ghaleb, A.M. (2013, January 17\u201320). A comparative analysis of BLE and 6LoWPAN for U-HealthCare applications. Proceedings of the 2013 7th IEEE GCC Conference and Exhibition (GCC), Doha, Qatar.","DOI":"10.1109\/IEEEGCC.2013.6705791"},{"key":"ref_44","unstructured":"Isomaki, M., Nieminen, J., Gomez, C., Shelby, Z., Savolainen, T., and Patil, B. (2017, December 12). Transmission of IPv6 Packets over Bluetooth Low Energy, February 2013. Available online: https:\/\/tools.ietf.org\/html\/draft-ietf-6lowpan-btle-12."},{"key":"ref_45","unstructured":"STMicroelectronics (2016). STM32 ODE function pack for connecting 6LoWPAN IoT nodes to smarphones via BLE interface. Data Brief FP-NET-6LPBLE1 2016, STMicroelectronics. Available online: https:\/\/www.st.com\/."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pau, G., Collotta, M., and Maniscalco, V. (2017). Bluetooth 5 Energy Management through a Fuzzy-PSO Solution for Mobile Devices of Internet of Things. Energies, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/en10070992"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"92","DOI":"10.1109\/MCOMSTD.2017.1700030","article-title":"Performance Evaluation of the Data Transfer Modes in Bluetooth 5","volume":"1","author":"Marco","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEEE Commun. Stand. Mag."},{"key":"ref_48","unstructured":"Sawyer, B., and Loukides, M. (2014). Protocol Basics. Getting Started with Bluetooth Low Energy: Tools and Techniques for Low-Power Networking, O\u2019Reilly Media, Inc."},{"key":"ref_49","unstructured":"Goodwin, B. (2012). Architecture. Bluetooth Low Energy\u2014The Developer\u2019s Handbook, Prantice Hall-Pearson Education, Inc."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11734","DOI":"10.3390\/s120911734","article-title":"Overview and Evaluation of Bluetooth Low Energy: An Emerging Low-Power Wireless Technology","volume":"12","author":"Gomez","year":"2012","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_51","unstructured":"Gupta, N.K. (2016). Inside Bluetooth Low Energy, [2nd ed.]. Google-Books-ID: 3nCuDgAAQBAJ."},{"key":"ref_52","unstructured":"Sawyer, B., and Loukides, M. (2014). Introduction. Getting Started with Bluetooth Low Energy: Tools and Techniques for Low-Power Networking, O\u2019Reilly Media, Inc."},{"key":"ref_53","unstructured":"BluetoothSIG (2016). Vol 6: Core System Package [Low Energy Specification], Part A: Physical Layer Specification. Specification of the Bluetooth\u00ae System, Covered Core Package Version: 5.0, The Bluetooth Special Interest Group. Available online: https:\/\/www.bluetooth.org\/."},{"key":"ref_54","unstructured":"Goodwin, B. (2012). The Host\/Controller Interface. Bluetooth Low Energy\u2014The Developer\u2019s Handbook, Prantice Hall- Pearson Education, Inc."},{"key":"ref_55","unstructured":"Goodwin, B. (2012). The Physical Layer. Bluetooth Low Energy\u2014The Developer\u2019s Handbook, Prantice Hall-Pearson Education, Inc."},{"key":"ref_56","unstructured":"Goodwin, B. (2012). Basic Concepts. Bluetooth Low Energy\u2014The Developer\u2019s Handbook, Prantice Hall-Pearson Education, Inc."},{"key":"ref_57","unstructured":"Sawyer, B., and Loukides, M. (2014). GAP (Advertising and Connections). Getting Started with Bluetooth Low Energy: Tools and Techniques for Low-Power Networking, O\u2019Reilly Media, Inc."},{"key":"ref_58","unstructured":"BluetoothSIG (2016). Vol 6: Core System Package [Low Energy Specification], Part B: Link Layer Specification. Specification of the Bluetooth\u00ae System, Covered Core Package Version: 5.0, The Bluetooth Special Interest Group. Available online: https:\/\/www.bluetooth.org\/."},{"key":"ref_59","unstructured":"BluetoothSIG (2016). Vol 1: Architecture & Terminology Overview, Part A: Architecture. Specification of the Bluetooth\u00ae System, Covered Core Package Version: 5.0, The Bluetooth Special Interest Group. Available online: https:\/\/www.bluetooth.org\/."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"361","DOI":"10.1109\/TII.2016.2605628","article-title":"CRC Error Correction in IoT Applications","volume":"13","author":"Tsimbalo","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Ind. Inform."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"30","DOI":"10.1109\/MCOM.2016.1600546CM","article-title":"Bluetooth Low Energy in Dense IoT Environments","volume":"54","author":"Harris","year":"2016","journal-title":"IEEE Commun. Mag."},{"key":"ref_62","unstructured":"BluetoothSIG (2016). Vol 3: Core System Package [Host Volume], Part G: Generic Attribute Profile. Specification of the Bluetooth\u00ae System, Covered Core Package Version: 5.0, The Bluetooth Special Interest Group. Available online: https:\/\/www.bluetooth.org\/."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Le\u00f3n, J., Due\u00f1as, A., Iano, Y., Makluf, C.A., and Kemper, G. (2017, January 8\u201310). A Bluetooth Low Energy mesh network auto-configuring Proactive Source Routing protocol. Proceedings of the 2017 IEEE International Conference on Consumer Electronics (ICCE), Las Vegas, NV, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICCE.2017.7889350"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Darroudi, S.M., and Gomez, C. (2017). Bluetooth Low Energy Mesh Networks: A Survey. Sensors, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/s17071467"},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1187","DOI":"10.1109\/LCOMM.2011.092011.111314","article-title":"Modeling the Maximum Throughput of Bluetooth Low Energy in an Error-Prone Link","volume":"15","author":"Gomez","year":"2011","journal-title":"IEEE Commun. Lett."},{"key":"ref_66","unstructured":"Apple (2017, December 12). Bluetooth Accessory Design Guidelines for Apple Products\u2014Release R7 2013. Available online: https:\/\/developer.apple.com\/hardwaredrivers\/{BluetoothDesignGuidelines}.pdf."},{"key":"ref_67","unstructured":"Nordic Semiconductor (2013). nRF51822: Multiprotocol Bluetooth Low Energy and 204 GHz Proprietary System-On-Chip. nRF51822 Product Brief Version 2.5 2013, Nordic Semiconductor. Available online: infocenter.nordicsemi.com\/."},{"key":"ref_68","unstructured":"STMicroelectronics (2016). BlueNRG Current Consumption Estimation Tool. STSW-BNRG001 2016, STMicroelectronics. Available online: https:\/\/www.st.com\/."},{"key":"ref_69","unstructured":"STMicroelectronics (2016). Upgradable Bluetooth\u00ae Low Energy Network Processor. Datasheet-Production Data BlueNRG-MS 2016, STMicroelectronics. Available online: https:\/\/www.st.com\/."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tei, R., Yamazawa, H., and Shimizu, T. (2015, January 28\u201330). BLE power consumption estimation and its applications to smart manufacturing. Proceedings of the 2015 54th Annual Conference of the Society of Instrument and Control Engineers of Japan (SICE), Hangzhou, China.","DOI":"10.1109\/SICE.2015.7285303"},{"key":"ref_71","unstructured":"STMicroelectronics (2016). BlueNRG-MS Bluetooth\u00ae LE Stack Application Command Interface (ACI). UM1865 User Manual 2017, STMicroelectronics. Available online: https:\/\/www.st.com\/."},{"key":"ref_72","unstructured":"Texas Instruments (2010). BLE-Stack User\u2019s Guide for Bluetooth 4.2 (V. 3.01.00.05) 2017, Texas Instruments. Available online: https:\/\/www.ti.com\/."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rheinl\u00e4nder, C.C., and Wehn, N. (November, January 30). Precise synchronization time stamp generation for Bluetooth low energy. Proceedings of the 2016 IEEE SENSORS, Orlando, FL, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICSENS.2016.7808812"},{"key":"ref_74","unstructured":"Habbal, M. (2012, January 14\u201315). Bluetooth low energy\u2013assessment within a competing wireless world. Proceedings of the Wireless Congress 2012-Systems & Applications, Munich, Germany."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12","DOI":"10.1109\/MPRV.2013.60","article-title":"Bluetooth LE Finds Its Niche","volume":"12","author":"Want","year":"2013","journal-title":"IEEE Pervasive Comput."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liu, J., Chen, C., Ma, Y., and Xu, Y. (2013, January 2\u20135). Energy Analysis of Device Discovery for Bluetooth Low Energy. Proceedings of the 2013 IEEE 78th Vehicular Technology Conference (VTC Fall), Las Vegas, NV, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/VTCFall.2013.6692181"},{"key":"ref_77","unstructured":"Texas Instruments (2010). CC2541: 2.4-GHz Bluetooth\u00ae Low Energy and Proprietary System-On-Chip. SWRS110D 2013, Texas Instruments. Available online: https:\/\/www.ti.com\/."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1865","DOI":"10.1109\/TVT.2016.2558194","article-title":"Performance Analysis of Neighbor Discovery Process in Bluetooth Low-Energy Networks","volume":"66","author":"Jeon","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Veh. Technol."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1439","DOI":"10.1109\/LCOMM.2012.073112.120877","article-title":"Modeling Neighbor Discovery in Bluetooth Low Energy Networks","volume":"16","author":"Liu","year":"2012","journal-title":"IEEE Commun. Lett."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"548","DOI":"10.1049\/iet-com.2016.0462","article-title":"Backoff scheme for crowded Bluetooth low energy networks","volume":"11","author":"Kim","year":"2017","journal-title":"IET Commun."},{"key":"ref_81","unstructured":"Kamath, S., and Lindh, J. (2010). Measuring bluetooth low energy power consumption. Application Note AN092 2010, Texas Instruments. Available online: https:\/\/www.ti.com\/."},{"key":"ref_82","unstructured":"NXP Semiconductors MKW40Z Power Consumption Analysis. Application Note AN5272 2016, NXP Semiconductor. Available online: https:\/\/www.nxp.com\/."},{"key":"ref_83","unstructured":"Texas Instruments (2010). CC2540: 2.4-GHz Bluetooth\u00ae Low Energy and Proprietary System-On-Chip. SWRS084F 2013, Texas Instruments. Available online: https:\/\/www.ti.com\/."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Feng, Z., Mo, L., and Li, M. (2015, January 1\u20134). Analysis of low energy consumption wireless sensor with BLE. Proceedings of the 2015 IEEE SENSORS, Busan, Korea.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICSENS.2015.7370563"},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Giovanelli, D., Milosevic, B., and Farella, E. (2015, January 18\u201319). Bluetooth Low Energy for data streaming: Application-level analysis and recommendation. Proceedings of the 2015 6th International Workshop on Advances in Sensors and Interfaces (IWASI), Gallipoli, Italy.","DOI":"10.1109\/IWASI.2015.7184945"},{"key":"ref_86","unstructured":"STMicroelectronics (2016). BlueNRG-Upgradable Bluetooth\u00ae Low Energy network processor. DocID025108-Datasheet 2016, STMicroelectronics. Available online: https:\/\/www.st.com\/."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Aguilar, S., Vidal, R., and Gomez, C. (2017). Opportunistic Sensor Data Collection with Bluetooth Low Energy. Sensors, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/s17010159"},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"59","DOI":"10.3390\/s150100059","article-title":"Analysis of Latency Performance of Bluetooth Low Energy (BLE) Networks","volume":"15","author":"Cho","year":"2014","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cho, K., Jung, C., Kim, J., Yoon, Y., and Han, K. (2015, January 4\u20136). Modeling and analysis of performance based on Bluetooth Low Energy. Proceedings of the 2015 7th IEEE Latin-American Conference on Communications (LATINCOM), Arequipa, Peru.","DOI":"10.1109\/LATINCOM.2015.7430115"},{"key":"ref_90","unstructured":"Liu, J., Chen, C., and Ma, Y. (2012, January 3\u20137). Modeling and performance analysis of device discovery in Bluetooth Low Energy networks. Proceedings of the 2012 IEEE Global Communications Conference (GLOBECOM), Anaheim, CA, USA."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Contreras, D., Castro, M., and de la Torre, D.S. (2017). Performance evaluation of bluetooth low energy in indoor positioning systems. Trans. Emerg. Telecommun. Technol., 28.","DOI":"10.1002\/ett.2864"},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kajikawa, N., Minami, Y., Kohno, E., and Kakuda, Y. (2016, January 22\u201325). On Availability and Energy Consumption of the Fast Connection Establishment Method by Using Bluetooth Classic and Bluetooth Low Energy. Proceedings of the 2016 Fourth International Symposium on Computing and Networking (CANDAR), Hiroshima, Japan.","DOI":"10.1109\/CANDAR.2016.0058"},{"key":"ref_93","unstructured":"Buckley, J., Aherne, K., O\u2019Flynn, B., Barton, J., Murphy, A., and O\u2019Mathuna, C. (June, January 30). Antenna performance measurements using wireless sensor networks. Proceedings of the 56th Electronic Components and Technology Conference 2006, San Diego, CA, USA."},{"key":"ref_94","unstructured":"Pattnayak, T., and Thanikachalam, G. (2015). Antenna Design and RF Layout Guidelines. Cypress Semiconductor AN91445, Cypress Semiconductor. Available online: http:\/\/www.cypress.com\/."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/17\/12\/2898\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T18:53:53Z","timestamp":1760208833000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/17\/12\/2898"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2017,12,13]]},"references-count":94,"journal-issue":{"issue":"12","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2017,12]]}},"alternative-id":["s17122898"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s17122898","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2017,12,13]]}}}